
A BEAR HUNT IN THE GREAT YAZOO MISSISSIPPI DELTA— BUT FOR THE DISASTER OF OVERFLOWS IN 
THE PAST, FERTILE PLANTATIONS WOULD BE HERE 




AND THIS IS THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN MECHANISM FOR SUCCESSFUL LEVEE BUILDING 



From Press of 

A. L. SWIFT & CO., 

180 Monroe Street, Chicago, 111. 



Designing and Grouping by 

ROBERT MARLAND HYNES, 

Artist 

1309 Manhattan Building 

Chicago, 111. 



Engraving by 

BRINKERHOFF & BARNETT CO., 

308 Dearborn Street, 

Chicago, 111., 

and 

GATCHELL & MANNING, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 



Map Work by 

RAND, McNALLY & CO., 

Chicago, 111. 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 
past^present^prospective 



BEING 



A collection of Essays and Discussions of Problems Affecting the 
Improvement of Navigation of the Mississippi River, Bank Protec- 
tion, Harbor Improvement, its Levee System and the Permanent 
Deepening of the Channel at its Mouth, together with some 
Legal Aspects and Economic Features, by various Contributors 



ALSO 



A Brief Review of the Attractions of, and the Possibilities of 
Development in, the Largest Alluvial Basin in the World 



BY 



FRANK H. TOMPKINS 

Special Representative Interstate Mississippi River Improvement and Levee Association 



COPYRIGHT 1901 

BY FRANK H. TOMPKINS 

NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



THE LIBRARY Of| 

CONGRESS, 
Two Copies Received | 

FEB. 27 1901 

COPVHIGHT ENTRr 

CLASS O^XXo. NoJ 
COPY B. 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



A BIT OF HISTORY. 



In June, 1890, there assembled at Vicksburg, 
Miss., a convention which more nearly repre- 
sented the entire alluvial section of the Mississippi 
River probably than any other that ever met. It 
was in the midst of one of the largest overflows, 
and at a time when the people had come to the con- 
clusion that their efforts and their sacrifices in the 
way of taxation were futile to cope with the deluges 
which periodically swept down upon them from the 
northern and western rivers, that the grave prob- 
lem, which they had spent millions in a vain- en- 
deavor to solve, was beyond their single-handed 
ability. It was generally known that this conven- 
tion would outline a policy by which the United 
States government and the people of the entire 
United States should be brought tO' a realization 
of the great commercial value of the millions of 
acres which lie in the great basins that were an- 
nually overswept, and that a more general under- 
standing of the subject would lead Congress to 
solve this problem^ — to bring security to the homes 
of the people and to contribute to the development 
of the vast areas which were yet untrodden, 
almost, by the foot of man. 

This convention adopted a report made by the 
engineers — both army and civil, uniting in a gen- 
eral statement. To aid to carry out these recom- 
mendations and to secure from Congress an allot- 
ment necessiH'yc£o."m£{et^cfeia iJequirtftafenls of the 
situation, the co'nvehtiori'brganizecl' itself into an 
association Ga.lled'tjieilMfcrs.t'S^e'iJilissi&^i'gpi River 
Improvement and-Ilevee ^'As'sOCiation,' With Hon. 
Charles Scott, of Rosedale, Miss., as President, 
and Mr. W. A. Everman, then of Memphis, Tenn., 
but now of Greenville, Miss., as Secretary, with the 
necessary executive and other committees. A 
Bureau of Correspondence was opened at Wash- 
ington City and many hundreds of thousands of 
documents were sent all over the United States. 
The leading journals of the United States, both in 
the East and in the West, strongly urged the neces- 
sity of protecting the rich alluvial valley. 



The Manufacturers' Record, a journal of South- 
ern development, sent a special commissioner 
through the whole fertile area threatened by over- 
flows and the subject was treated in all its phases 
in its columns. These series of articles were after- 
ward printed in book form and extensively cir- 
culated. 

It is no derogation to Congress to say that it is 
moved by public sentiment. In fact it is the theory 
upon which this country is builded, that such 
should be the case, and the only way to impress 
such a body as the Congress coming from so 
large a constituency having so^ diverse and often- 
times conflicting interests is to educate them up to 
the importance and nationality of a subject. 

On this principle this association has worked 
under the wise direction of President Scott, and 
nothing has been left undone that could be accom- 
plished with the limited means at hand. Of course 
much more could have been done in the way of 
disseminating information and molding public sen- 
timent in this matter, had larger funds been obtain- 
able, but anyhow a sufficiency has been obtained, 
probably, for a conservative use. 

Since that time all river and commercial con- 
ventions held in the Valley, and some held in 
remote parts of the United States, have had dele- 
gates present to represent the interests of the peo- 
ple who live behind the levees. At no time in 
the passage of a bill before Congress for the Great 
River has this Association been without a special 
representative, and often delegations were present 
with facts and figures to demonstrate the right of 
the people of the Mississippi Valley tO' appropria- 
tions and national assistance for the improving of 
the Mississippi River and the building and 
strengthening of its levee system. Capt. Patrick 
Henry, of Ai-kansas, is the representative of the 
Association. 

This continual agitation has greatly strengthened 
public sentiment in favor of larger appropriations 
by the general government. The plans as out- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



lined and carried into effect have had the endorse- 
ment of every member of Congress directly inter- 
ested in the Mississippi River sections. And they 
have realized that the work of the people who live 
behind the le\'ees, directed through the commercial 
and financial circles which are interested in the 
safety and development of these valleys, is a potent 
factor in upholding their hands at Washington. 
The Mis.sissippi River has not lacked for able 
champions in Congress from the early agitation 
for the formation of the Mississippi River Com- 
mission down to the present time. 

The first distinct triumph of the levee interests 
in Congress was in 1891, when an emergency bill 
of one million dollars was passed by Congress to 
repair the ravages of the ovei"flow of 1890. This 
appropriaiiem was unrestricted by the clause which 
had existed in former laws confining- the appro- 
priations by the general government tO' building of 
levees only where "in the judgment of the Mississ- 
ippi River Commission it was necessary for the im- 
provement of channel navigation." This appro- 
priation was available tO' repair levees wherever the 
floods had swept them away. 

Following this came the ten million dollar con- 
tinous contract law from which over "six" million 
dollars was applied to extending and enlarging the 
levees. The final allotment from this act was ex- 
pended during the j-ear of 1899. The failure of the 
House Committee on Rivers and Harbors to re- 
port a general River and Harbor Bill at the last 
session of Congress caused much apprehension on 
the part of the people of the Valley that there 
would be a temporary cessation of the levee and 
river improvement work by the government, but 
the sentiment in favor of the Mississippi River im- 
provements — regarding it as the great national 
highway of the United States, was so strong that 
all precedents were diregarded and the usual ap- 
propriation was placed on the Sundi'y Civil Bill in 
the Senate and adopted by the House of Conferees. 

This was simply carrying out the spirit of the 
Continuous Appropriation Act which had expired. 

But to return to the statement regarding the 
general work of the Association. It will be recalled 
by the people of the Valley that in 1897, when the 
expenditures authorized by the above mentioned 
contract bill was about to conclude, the Senate 
passed a resolution ordering an investigation of the 



whole subject and appointed a sub-comrnittee of 
the Committee on Commerce to make it. '; 

In June following the action and preceding the 
visit of this sub-committee, the representative of 
the various levee boards of the Mississippi River 
met in New York at a session of the Mississippi 
River Commission. 

At a meeting- of these representatives, called to 
consider the visit of this sub-committee, it was 
requested that Capt. Patrick Henry, representative 
of this Association, should secure full data relating 
to the alluvial lands of the Mississippi River to 
aid them in their investigations. While this work 
was in progress President Scott directed a renewal 
of the correspondence and propaganda of informa- 
tion which reached the commercial interests of all 
parts of the United States, supplying information, 
maps, charts, etc., to be used by the industrial and 
commercial firms, corporations and organizations 
to further the protection of the alluvial lands 
of the Mississippi River. This plan was very 
successful and enabled our people to feel the 
assurance that the improvement of the Miss- 
issippi River and the protection of these rich 
alluvial basins through appropriations from the 
general government would not only be endorsed 
by the people of the United States, but that 
Congress would be urged to action by them. 
And their promises were immediately followed by 
persistent demands for the solution of this problem. 

This has been disparaged by some as a lobby or 
lobbying plan, but what if it is? There is no wrong 
in a lobbjr if properly used and for a proper pur- 
pose. The Constitution of the United States gives 
the people the right of petition, and it is certainly 
their right to ask those who are equally interested 
with them in a matter of importance to their com- 
mercial or industrial well-being to join with 
them in petition. From time immemorial it has 
been the custom to send delegates tO' Washing- 
ton City and to otherwise influence a proper action 
of Congress to protect and develop national inter- 
ests. Our friends of the Eastern and Central 
States have understood this better, and have ap- 
plied it with more frequency in the up-building of 
great manufacturing interests, than we have. And 
it is the only successful, and, in fact, the only logi- 
cal method by which interests can be properly pre- 
sented to Congress. The House represents three 



6 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 

hundred and fifty-six dilTerent constituencies and through their continued efforts and good oiSces 
the Senate represents the whole people of all the that this protection will be finally accomplished. 



difTerent States. 

Thus Congress is a body of units, and these units 
must look out for the individual district first. Now 
it stands to reason that any measure which benefits 
the constituents of a majority of these units should 
be successful in Congress. If the increased trade 
which should spring from the development made 
possible by the protection of these great basins 
from the dangers of recurring floods, interest the 
constituents of a majority of these units, then it 
should be a matter of easy accomplishment to se- 
cure this protection. 

Thus the commercial and manufacturing inter- 
ests of the United States, ever alert tO' the import- 
ance of the development of new avenues of trade, 
as well as to the safety of that which they are at 
present enjoying, have been warmly second- 
ing the people of the Mississippi Valley in their 



The people of this section have shown, and are 
still showing, a commendable activity and abund- 
ant self-sacrifice in grappHng with the great prob- 
lem which has confronted them, and certainly they 
deserve well for the heroic and expensive fight 
which they have made to stay the ravages of the 
great stream which passes their door and annually 
threatens their homes and their property. 

The line of levees behind which they live, while 
not up to the requirements of absolute safety, are 
of such height and are now built with such me- 
chanical skill, and bv such improved methods, that 
they feel a security against almost any ordinary 
high water, but the agitation of the question in 
Congress, and by the people themselves, through 
their associations, and by the aid of their commer- 
cial correspondence throughout the United States, 



efliorts to secure immunity from water and to per- ^"st and will persistently continue until levees 

mit the further development of the trade which a''e raised and fortified, to become, like the dikes of 

emanates from these fertile basins. And it is largely Holland, so strong that life and property shall be 

due to their efforts that increased appropriations as secure from threatened invasion of waters as 

have been made by Congress, and it will be on the fertile plains of Illinois, Iowa or Kansas. 




THE HOME OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STaTE.S 



Past - Present- Prospective 



THANKS! 



IT IS pleasant to feel grateful, and pleasanter still to be able to give expression 
to it. So I dedicate this page as an offering of thanks in acknowledgment of 

, aid, without which this book never could have been issued. 

I 

To the contributors of the able articles presented. 

To the Levee Boards of the Mississippi River Districts. 

To Police Juries, City Councils and Commercial Organizations. 

To Hon. Charles Scott, Mr. W. A. Everman, Mr. P. M. Harding, President 
D;lta Trust and Banking Company; Messrs. Duffin Bros. & McGehee and Cald- 
well & Smith, for valuable financial aid. 

To members of Congress and others who warmly endorsed the work in advance. 

To Hons. J. M. Jayne, J. E. Ransdell, John B. Driver and Mr. Harry N. 
Pharr, for active assistance in many ways. 

To the Railroads — the great developers of our alluvial sections — for transporta- 
tion and other assistance. 

To many generous firms, corporations and individuals, for offerings to bear the 
large expense of this work. 

To the Press — last but not least — for cordial and unreserved commendation. 




PATRICK HENRY 
Representative 




W. A. EVERMAN 
Secretary 



CHARI,ES SCOTT 
President 




FRANK H. TOMPKINS 
Special Representative 



W. E. m'gehee 
Chairman Finance Committee 




P. M. HARDING 
Treasurer 



OFFICERS OF THE INTERSTATE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IMPROVEMENT AND LEVEE ASSOCIATION 




y 




J. S. MORGAN, President 



URIAH MILLSAPS, Vice President 



OFFICERS OUACHITA RIVER IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION 




GEORGE ARNOLD 




JOHN M. PARKER 




MEMBERS OF 
EXECUTIVE 

BOARD 

INTERSTATE 

MISSISSIPPI 

RIVER 

IMPROVEMENT 

AND LEVEE 

ASSOCIATION 




J OHN B. DRIVER 



MURRAY F. SMITH 





THE LATE W. A. PERCY 



RICHARD H EDMONDS 

Editor of the Baltimore Manufacturers' Record 

(See page 4) 




PRESIDENTS 
OF 

ASSOCIA- 
TIONS AND 
OTHERS WHO 
HAVE BEEN 
PROMINENT 

IN LEVEE 
AND RIVER 

MATTERS 




JOHN K. SPEED 



M. J. SANDERS 
President Louisiana Waterways Association 




B. D WOOD 
President Western Waterways Assnriafinn 



MAJ. JAS. K. VARDEIHAN 




1 Geo. G. Vest, Missouri 

2 James McMillan, Michigan 

3 George Turner, Washington 

4 John P. Jones, Nevada 



8 (Center) Wm. P. Frye, Maine, Chairman 
George W. McBride, Oregon 10 William E. Mason. Illinois 

Knure Nelson, Minnesota 1 I Alexander S. Clay, Georgia 

Thomas S. Martin, Virginia 12 Stephen B. Elkins, W. Virginia 

Jacob H. Gallinger, New Hampshire 13 Boies Penrose, Pennsylvania 



14 Chauncc\' M. Depew, New York 

15 James H. Berry, Arkansas 

16 Marcus A. Hanna, Ohio 

17 Donelson Caffery, Louisiana 



COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, U. S. SENATE 




1 - (Center) Theodore E. Burton, Ohio 6 Stephen M, Sparkman, Florida 

2 John H. Bankhead, Alabama 7 Thomas H. Ball, Texas 

3 Ernest F. Acheson, Pennsylvania 8 Albert S. Berry. Kentucky 

4 Roswell P. Bishop, Michigan 9 Page Morris, Minnesota 

5 Thomas C. Catchings, Mississippi lo De Alva S. Alexander, New York 



11 Walter Reeves, lUiuois 15 James H. Davidson, Wisconsin 

12 Thomas H, Tongue, Oregon 16 Rufus E. Lester, Georgia 

13 Phillip D. McCulloch, Arkansas 17 Blackburn B. Dcvener, West 

14 Geo. P. Lawrence, Massachusetts Virginia 



COMMITTEE ON RIVERS AND HARBORS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, U. S. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



13 





FRANCIS M. COCKRELI, 
Senator from Missouri 



THE LATE ISHAM G. HARRIS 
Senator Irom Tennessee 




CUFTON R. BRECKINRIDGE 
Ex-Representative from Arkansas 




JOHN S. LITTLE 
Representative from Arkansas 



SOME PROMINENT MEMBERS AND EX-MEMBERS, ETC. 

(See page 244) 
NOTE-Photographs were received too late to allow iusertion in proper place. -Ed. 



14 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



PREFACE 



rr^HE comprehensive character of this work and its diversity of subjects, or, rather, its many phases 
-*■ of one general subject, make a preface necessary. 

The motive of this publication is, of course, to benefit the cause for which the Association, of 
which the writer is Special Representative, has labored so persistently — to secure a treatment of the 
Mississippi River commensurate with its vast value as a gift of nature; to obtain for those who live on 
its alluvial lands jiist protection, which they rightfully have earned by heroic effort to protect them- 
selves; to develop, for the good of the whole coimtr}', an empire of unmined wealth which Time has 
collected from the bowl of the Gods, and stored to lubricate the wheels of Industry. The conception of 
this work was mine — born of an enthusiasm which years of connection with this Great River and its 
rich alluvial lands, and 3'ears of more or less intimate relations with those who have striven .so hard and 
labored so successfully in this cause, had fostered. I persuaded the Hon, Charles Scott, president of the 
Interstate Mississippi River Improvement and Levee Association, first to give it his ofi&cial sanction, 
and, later, to accept it as a part of the work of the Association — this to give it standing as an effort 
for a public purpose and to eliminate the suspicion of private speculation. The public will pardon the 
statement which my pride induces me to make, that never once, even though assuming, in a certain 
sen.se, a responsibility for the character of the book, has Mr. Scott ever sought to advise regarding its 
contents. He gave an unreserved commendation of its purpose — for its proper preparation, he had 
faith in me. Thus the public can know where to place the blame for any shortcomings or deficiencies 
which may be foimd. 

To make the book locally attractive and also of some good, perhaps, as an advertisement 
of our beautiful alluvial country, a concise illustrated review has been added. The review, brief 
as it is, discloses a pleasing picture of progress. Data of population and assessed valuations given for- 
tify this statement. No attempt has been made to present other than bare and general outlines. More 
than usual space has been given of the great universities of Louisiana, all of which are located within 
the territory which this book describes. 

The Police Juries of Louisiana, which are miniature legislative bodies in each parish, having 
been so active in levee matters, and so generous in aid of the movement to secure the support of a pow- 
erful public sentiment, it was ni}' desire to include engraved groups of each, but it was soon apparent 
that it was next to impossible to secure complete groups of photographs, and, besides, space was lim- 
ited, so that plan was reluctantly abandoned. Two or three groups, however, were made of such 
photographs as were sent to uie. In a general way I have endeavored to give engravings of men who 
represent the levee, shipping, river and commercial organizations ; also, the daily press, state officials, 
and a few others, which seemed to me to be appropriate. No engraving has been inserted for a cash con- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



15 



sideration. No apology is tendered for the presence of any engravings— only regret is expressed at the 
absence of many which I would gladly have added. No doubt pardon will be granted me for making a 
departure, in a small way, by giving engravings of some of the strong men, living and dead, of our 
Crescent City — those who, as it were, link the past and the present in the upbuilding of our great 
Southern part — New Orleans— which, always interesting, prosperous and growing, is now on the thresh- 
old of a still brighter prospect. 





'Ft^^^^^f^-f 






^^^ 




j^^H 


T/ 




E '^^ WM'i^ir-"-''' 


^{f 


1 I n- i 




1 ' ^■ 




X,^.^ 


*■ . ■ ^ ■■ 



THIS WE HOPE TO RESTRAIN- 




AND THIS WE HOPE TO SEE UNHAMPERED IN ITS ENTRANCE 
INTO THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



16 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 
Title, Preface, Etc 1-16 

The Mississippi River Improvement — T. C. Catchings ... iS 

The Mississippi River — Some Constitutional and Legal 

Aspects of the Question — N. C. Blanchard 25 

The Mississippi River — Nature's Greatest Highway — 

J. A. Ockerson 35 

The Lower Mississippi and Its Regulation — H. St. L. 

Coppee 48 

Some General Reflections on the Levee Problem — T. G. 

Dabney 65 

River Basins and the Levees Which Protect Them — 

William Starling 76 

Improvement of the Lower Mississippi River — Arthur 

Hider S2 

The Mississippi River— What It Needs and Why It Needs 

It— Maj. Smith S. Leach, U. S. A 93 

A Matchless System of Majestic Waterways — Charles Scott, 99 

High Water Protection Methods On Lower Mississippi 

River — William Joseph Hardee 107 

Protection of Caving Banks— H. S. Douglas 121 

Paper by the Late H. N. Pharr 125 

Floods of Mississippi River (Report) — Senator Knute 

Nelson 129 

Early Levee Building — Wm. Beer 139 

Direct Intercourse Between the Mississippi Valley and 

South America —Leon Jastremski 142 



Mouth of Mississippi River — Letter of Harrod and Rich- 
ardson , 149 

Mouth of Mississippi River — History of Attempted Im- 
provements — Maj. James B. Quinn, U. S. A 154 



Deep Water at Mouth of the Mississippi River — Stuyve- 

sant Fish 16S 

Railroad Maps 174 

Deep Water— M. J. Sanders iSS 

Mouth of Mississippi River — Value of Deep Water — E. L. 

Corthell 197 

The Mississippi River Commission 208 

The Mississippi River and Its Lowlands — R. S. Taylor. . . 226 

Capital of United States and Members of Congress 241 

Protection of Cities, Etc. — L- W. Brown 258 

A Crevasse on the Mississippi River — F. M. Norfleet 268 

The Mississippi River (Shipping Review) — John W. 

Bryant , , , , , . . , 274 



page; 

Levee Lines on the Mississippi River (Maps) 291 

Yazoo-Mississippi Delta Levee District— .A.rranged by A. 

L. Dabney ^95 , 

Mississippi Levee District— C. H. West 305 

St. Francis Levee District of Missouri — Hina C. Schult. . 309 

St. Francis Levee District of Arkansas— Harry N. Pharr. 315 

Upper Tensas Levees— E. C. Tollinger 319 

Desha Levees— J. M. Whitehill 3^5 

Red Fork Levee District— G. E. Buck 329 

Louisiana Levees — Henry B. Richardson 333 

Homochilto Levee District 346 

The Alluvial Basin of the Mississippi River 348 

Letter to Business Men of the United States— Charles 

Scott 354 

The Press of the Mississippi Valley 356 

Railroad Officials. 360 

Cairo, Illinois— John R. Rector 371 

Missouri Alluvial Lands 385 

Arkansas Alluvial Lands 4^4 

Pine Bluff, Arkansas 433 

Little Rock, Arkansas 438 

Helena, Arkansas 44^ 

Tennessee Alluvial Lands • ■ ■ • 449 

Memphis— G. W. Fooshe 459 

Mississippi Alluvial Lands 479 

Natchez and Vicksburg, Mississippi 499. 5°! 

Yazoo City, Greenwood, Greenville and Clarksdale, 

Miss 513. 515 

Louisiana Alluvial Lands 51S 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana 53^ 

Louisiana State University 544 

Sugar Cane 55^ 

Bayou Lafourche 5^3 

New Orleans — Walter C. Flower 580 

New Orleans— J. A. Blaifer , 599 

Tulane University 609 

Bayou Teche 616 

Red River Valley and Cities 624 

Ouachita Valley, Monroe and Camden 629, 635 



Past—Present— Prospective 



17 





18 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IMPROVEMENT 



By Hon. T. C. CATCHINGS, of Mississippi 



THE exploits of Cortes in Mexico and Pizarro in 
Peru excited the attention of the European 
States to a degree which surpasses description. Spain 
and Portugal especially were fired with an enthusiasm 
for further conquest which knew no bounds. Those 
eager for adventure and military renown, and those 
whose imaginations were inflamed by the belief that 
exhaustless treasure awaited discovery, were alike 
active in organizing expeditions to explore the 
newly-found America. 

One of these, led by Ponce de Leon, who had been 
a companion of Columbus, set out from Porto Rico 
in March, 1512, in search of the Fountain of Youth, 
whose waters were supposed to baffle time and 
disease and make youth perpetual. 

It landed near St. . Augustine, where it was set 
upon by the natives with intense fury. Those who 
were not slain were driven to their ships and returned 
to Cuba, where Ponce de Leon, who had been mor- 
tally wounded, soon died. 

Bancroft says : " So ended the adventurer who had 
coveted immeasurable wealth and hoped for per- 
petual youth. The discoverer of Florida had 
desired immortality on earth and gained onl)- its 
shadow." Other expeditions followed, which met 
with no better fortune. 

In the year 1538 Hernando De Soto, one of the 
conquerers of Peru, surpassed in military renown 
only by Pizarro and Cortes, a Spanish nobleman of 
great wealth and influence, procured from the 
Emperor of Spain authority to undertake the con- 
c^uest of Florida at his own expense. Attracted by 
the splendid promise of glory and riches, which such 
a movement commanded by so renowned and bril- 
liant a captain offered, De Soto had no difficulty in 
gathering about him a band of bold, ambitious and 
courageous men, filled with enthusiasm and eager 
to follow wheresoever he might lead. 



Mr. Irving says of this enterprise : " It was poetry 
put into action ; it was the knight-errantry of the 
Old World carried into the depths of the American 
wilderness. The personal adventures, the feats of 
individual prowess, the picturescjue descriptions of 
steel-clad cavaliers with lance and helm and j^ranc- 
ing steed glittering through the wildernesses of 
Florida, Georgia, Alabama and the prairies of the 
far West would seem to us mere fictions of romance 
did they not come to us in the matter-of-fact narra- 
tives of those who were eye-witnesses and who 
recorded minute memoranda of every day's inci- 
dents." The expedition set sail from Havana May 
12, 15.39, and arrived in the bay of Espiritu Santo on 
the 25th of the same month. 

It is needless to recount the many adventures of 
the expedition, but from the moment of its landing 
on the coast of Florida i^ntil its return four years 
later, its history is a story of continuous privation, 
suffering and sanguinary conflict. Engaged almost 
daily in combat with the natives, confronted con- 
stantly by dangers and difficulties of every conceiva- 
ble nature, this gallant band of cavaliers forced their 
way, step by step, through the wilds of Florida, 
Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, until they 
reached the banks of the Mississippi river in April, 
1541, at a point near the present city of Helena. 
Because of its size they call it the " Rio Grande." 

They crossed the river and pushed on westward, but 
were compelled by many disasters to return, and 
reached it again in May, 1542. Here on June 5, in 
his 42d year, Hernando De Soto, the first European 
who beheld the mighty and noble stream, worn out 
hj incessant fatigue of body and mind, ended his 
career, and his companions, placing his body in a 
coffin made by hollowing out a piece of green oak, 
took it out to the middle of the river and sunk it in 
nineteen fathoms of water. Thinking to reach 



Past— Present— Prospective 



19 



Mexico, his survivors again marched westward, hut 
were driven back by stress of circumstances, and 
returned to the river at a point near the mouth of 
the Arkansas. 

Reduced in numbers to less than 350 men, they 
determined to abandon all further efforts of explora- 
tion, and constructed a small fleet of boats, in which 
they embarked on July 2, 1543.- After passing 
through many dangers thej'' reached the sea twenty 
daj's later, and beat their waj^ westward until they 
reached the town of Panuco, on the Mexican coast, 
where they disbanded. It was through this expedi- 
tion that we get our first knowledge of the Missis- 
sippi river, and its description given then will 
answer for to-day. 

Monette says : " The lapse of three centuries has 
not changed the character of the stream. It was 
then described as it now is, as more than a mile in 
width, flowing with a strong current, and by the 
weight of its waters forcing a channel of great depth. 
The water was described as being always muddy, 
and trees and timber were continually floating down 
the stream." 

While Spain was attempting the conquest of the 
Southern country, and England that along the New 
England and Middle Atlantic coast, France had 
gained a foothold in the extreme North, and had 
founded the city of Quebec as early as 1608. 

The motive which impelled her was very 
different, however, from that which controlled other 
powers. 

Bancroft truly says : " It was neither commercial 
enterprise nor royal ambition which carried the 
power of France into the heart of our continent. 
The motive was religion." We therefore naturally 
And that the Jesuits were always on the outpost of 
French progress. " The history of their labors is 
connected with the origin of every celebrated town 
in the annals of French America. Not a river was 
entered, not a cape was turned, but a Jesuit led the 
way." 

In 1669 Father Allouez learned from the tribes of 
Indians on the southern shores of Lake Superior of a 
great river further to the west called by them the 
" Mesasippi " or Great River. 

It was ascertained " that it flowed neither toward 
the north nor toward the east," but not to what point 
its course lay, nor into what sea it discharged. 

In 1673 an expedition to discover and explore 
this great river was organized. It was put in charge 
of M. Joliet, of Quebec, and Father Marquette, who 



liad aided in establishing a mission at the Sault 
St, Marie. 

The latter, by reason of his familiarity with the 
natives and their great attachment to him, was well 
fitted to lead such an enterprise. " Such was the 
veneration of the savages for this good man, that for 
years after his death, when overtaken in their frail 
bark canoes by the storms on Lake Michigan, it is 
said that they called upon the name of Marquette, 
and the winds ceased and the waves were still." 

They turned from Lake Michigan into Green Bay, 
where they entered and ascended Fox river. Thence 
they crossed the portage to the Wisconsin, and 
descending it, reached the Mississippi June 17, 1673. 

They passed the mouth of the Missouri (the 
Pekitanoni of the Indians), the confluence of the 
Ohio, and down the river 1,100 miles below the 
point at which they had entered it. They then 
returned and made known their discovery amidst 
great rejoicing. Until then no white man had seen 
the Mississippi since the fatal expedition of De Soto, 
one hundred and thirty years before. 

La Salle, in 1679, next entered the river, but he 
crossed the portage from Lake Michigan into the 
Illinois, and went down that stream. He caused 
explorations to be made as far up as St. Anthony's 
Falls, and in 1682 descended to the Gulf of Mexico. 

He named the river "St. Louis," and the country, 
" Louisiana." Returning to France, he organized a 
colony and sailed for the mouth of the river, but 
failed to find it, and landed at the Bay of Mata- 
gorda. While attempting to reach the settlement 
which he had founded on the Illinois before return- 
ing to France, he was .slain by his companions. In 
1689 De Tonti descended to the mouth of the river 
in search of La Salle, but hearing nothing of him 
regained the Illinois country. Owing to continuous 
Indian wars, no further discoveries were made until 
about the treaty of 1700, with the five nations, which 
is described as follows : "A written treaty was made, 
to which each nation placed for itself a symbol — the 
Senecas and Onondagas drew a spider ; the Oayugas 
a calumet ; the Oneidas a forked stick, and the Mo- 
hawks a bear," After this colonies began to enter 
the valley both from the North and the South. 

Towns and trading posts were established, espe- 
cially in the Illinois country, and as early as 1712 
land titles and deeds came into use to designate pri- 
vate acquisitions. By 1720 a very considerable trade 
had grown up between the upper and the lower 
settlements. 



20 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River- 



Iberville established a post at Biloxi in 1699, and 
made repeated explorations of the lakes, bayous and 
tributaries of the lower river. 

The movements of the French had attracted the 
attention of the English to the Mississippi valley, 
and they dispatched a man-of-war about this time to 
explore the mouths of the river. Bien^'ille, a sub- 
ordinate of Iberville, while sounding the channel a 
few miles below the site of New Orleans, met this 
vessel and threatened resistance if it did not leave. 
The vessel departed, though under protest, and the 
point at which it turned is known to this day as the 
" English Turn." New Orleans was founded in 
1718, and a survey of the passes by Pauger, a royal 
French engineer, having shown that shipping could 
be brought up the river, it was made the principal 
depot and capital of Louisiana. 

The commerce of the valley in 1745 is thus de- 
scribed : " The trade between the northern and 
southern portions of Louisiana had greatly aug- 
mented, as well as that from New Orleans to France 
and foreign countries. Regular cargoes of flour, 
bacon, pork, hide, leather, tallow, bear's oil and 
lumber were annually transported down the Missis- 
sippi in keel boats and barges to New Orleans and 
Mobile, whence they were shipped to France and the 
West Indies. In their return voyages these boats 
and barges, from New Orleans and Mobile, supplied 
the Illinois and "Wabash countries with rice, indigo, 
tobacco, sugar, cotton and European fabrics. The 
two extremes of Louisiana produced and supplied 
each other alternately with the necessaries and com- 
forts of life required by each respectively. The 
mutual exchange of commodities kept up a constant 
and active communication from one end of the 
province to the other. Boats, barges and pirogues 
were daily plying from one point to another, freighted 
with the rude products of a new and growing coun- 
try. The great highways of commerce were the 
deep and solitary channels of the Mississippi and its 
hundreds of tributaries." 

In the lower country rice, indigo and tobacco were 
the chief crops at this time. In 1751 sugar cane 
began to be cultivated. The first sugar mill was 
erected in 1758 and proved so remunerative that 
many others were put up, and by 1760 sugar cane 
had become one of the staple crops. Cotton was 
grown, but only in limited quantities for domestic 
consumption, because of the difficulty in separating 
the lint from the seed. About 1752 a cotton gin 
was invented by M. Dubreuil, which so facilitated 



the process that cotton growing became more exten- 
sive. But it was not until the invention in 1807 by . 
Whitney of the saw cotton gin that the impulse to 
cotton growing was given, which has made it the 
chief business of many portions of the South. 

Only the large plantations, however, could afford 
a gin, so public gins were set up, upon which the 
crops of the small planters were ginned. 

In the Mississippi territory, laws were passed 
requiring all cotton to be ginned within four months 
from its deli\ery. " Cotton receipts " were given, 
and as early as March, 1806, they were made nego- 
tiable by law, whereby they became domestic bills 
of exchange and answered the purpose of a circulat- 
ing medium. 

A continued struggle had been progressing for 
supremacy in the Mississippi valley between France, 
England and- Spain, with various and shifting 
results, which need not be recited here. 

By the treaty of 1783, Great Britain relinquished 
to the United States everything east of the Missis- 
sippi, from its source to the 31st parallel of North 
latitude, and at the same time it ceded to Spain 
everything east of the Mississippi and south of the 
31st parallel. France, in 1763, had ceded to Spain 
all Western Louisiana, including the island of 
Orleans. 

Thus the river for the last 300 miles flowed 
entirely through Spanish dominions, and Spain 
claimed the exclusive right to the use of that por- 
tion, and imposed heavy duties on all produce 
brought down. They were enforced by excise offi- 
cers, supported by the military, and every boat was 
required to land and submit to these revenue exac- 
tions. 

This was the only outlet for the rapidly-growing 
West, and the American people demanded free navi- 
gation as a natural right, as well as through the 
treaty with Great Britain. 

In 1788, Congress declared " that the free naviga- 
tion of the Mississippi is a clear and essential right 
of the United States, and that the same ought to be 
considered and supported as such." 

Finally, Spain, by the treaty of 1795, stipulated 
"that the whole width -of said river, from its source 
to the sea, shall be free to the people of the United 
States." 

France had never approved the cession to Spain 
of Western Louisiana, and Napoleon, by the treaty 
of Ildefonso, confirmed in March, 1801, required it 
from Spain. Being involved in war with England, 



Past— Present— Prospective 



21 



however, and apprehensive that he could not hold 
it, by the treaty of 1803, he sold it to the United 
States. When the treaty had been executed, he 
said : " This accession of territory strengthens for- 
ever the power of the United States, and I have just 
given to England a maritime lival that will sooner 
or later humble her pride." 

From this time on, and especially after Ihe intro- 
duction of steam power, the commerce of the river 
rapidly increased, and to-day its valley is the center 
of wealth, population and political control. 

The Mississippi River Levees. 



A few miles above Cairo the Mississippi river 
breaks through a spur of the Ozark mountains. 
At some time in the remote past an estuary, which 
was ajjproximately 600 miles long and from 25 to 
80 miles wide, extended from the Gulf of Mexico to 
this point. It has gradually been displaced by the 
sediment brought down by the Mississippi river and 
its tributaries. This sediment was of course depos- 
ited the moment the waters which had carried it 
along in suspension reached this arm of the sea. 
Hence the building up of the alluvial lands of the 
lower valley began at the northern end of the es- 
tuary and, step by step, marched down to the sea. 

The comparative elevations of the land and sea 
are such that at the point where the Mississippi river 
cut through the mountain spur above Cairo it must 
have had a fall of several hundred feet. It neces- 
sarily followed from this that the vast quantities of 
sediment deposited by the floods, which perpetually 
discharged into the estuary, would in time drive it 
back and supplant it by lands which would be built 
up far above the level of the sea. 

The lands which ousted the estuary in tlie manner 
described gave birth to a dense and luxuriant growth 
of vegetation as soon as they had been built up to an 
elevation above the sea level. The waters of the river 
being insufficient to cover all the lands so created, 
or indeed, any considerable portion of them, except 
during the existence of gret.t floods, were naturally 
concentrated under normal conditions into a channel 
of their own making, and through this channel made 
their exit to the sea. When the floods came they 
found this channel insufficient, and, overtopping its 
banks, spread out over the valley in a thin sheet of 
water, varying in depth from a few inches to a con- 
siderable number of feet, where it remained until 
the supply from above ceased, when it was gradually 
drawn back into the channel, except as to certain 



parts of the extreme lower valley whence it could 
otherwise more directly find a way to the Gulf. 

The water of the river is more heavily charged 
with silt or sediment during flood periods than under 
normal conditions. This sediment is maintained in 
a state of suspension altogether by the motion of the 
water. From this it follows that when from any 
cause the velocity of the water is reduced it must 
di'op some part of its load, and when it is entirely 
checked it must drop the whole of it. It is by 
virtue of this law that the mouths of all silt-be? ring 
streams become obstructed by bars, which seriously 
interfere with commerce. The Eads jetties were 
constructed to remove the shoaling of the South 
Pass of the Mississippi river resulting from the prin- 
ciple stated. 

When the floods come and the channel can hold 
no more water they can only make room for them- 
selves by escaping over its banks. The velocity of 
the water outside of the channel is much less than 
the velocity of that which remains in the channel, 
and it therefore begins at once to part with its 
supply of sediment. This operation is hastened by 
the obstruction created by the trees and undergrowth. 
As the velocity is thus checked, naturally the coarser 
and heavier particles of sediment are first dropped, 
and the remainder is gradually parted with, until 
when the water has gone a considerable distance it be- 
comes comparatively clear. For this reason the banks 
of the Misciscippi, and of all silt-bearing streams, are 
higher than the lands further back. The land slopes 
away from the banks of the river so that the fall is 
about six or seven feet to the mile. It is thus seen 
that the riv'er when left to itself was constantly 
building its banks higher and higher, and so mak- 
ing its channel more and capable of holding the 
floods. In time if man had not made his appear- 
ance, and by his operations seriously interfered 
with the processes of nature, they would slowly but 
surely have raised the banks of the river until over- 
flows would have become extremely rare. In build- 
ing levees therefore to prevent- the escape of the 
floods, man is but imitating nature. 

The lands of the lower Mississippi valley, which 
comprise about 30,000 square miles, are so extraor- 
dinarily fertile that they have attracted attention from 
their earliest discovery, and much speculation, theor- 
izing and contention have for long been indulged in 
as to the best method by which they can be protected 
from inundation so that they can be subjected to the 
uses and needs of man. If artificial banks, which 



22 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



are called levees, can be made high and strong 
enough to restrain the floods, thej' furnish not only 
a sure method but infinitely the cheapest. The 
earliest settlements in the valley having been made 
in the extreme southern portion of it, efforts to 
secure protection against the floods first began 
there. In 1717 a levee was built to protect 
the city of New Orleans from overflow. In 1735 
DePratz says that " the levee extended from English 
Bend, twelve miles below, to thii'ty miles above, 
and on both sides of the river." In 1743 an ordi- 
nance was promulgated " reciuiring the inhabitants 
to complete their levees by the 1st of January, 1744, 
under a penalty of forfeiture of their lands to the 
crown." The levee building of those days was a 
small affair compared with that now going on. Its 
purpose was solely to protect the narrow strips of 
high land along the banks of the river, as only these 
were occupied. This was effected by small levees 
along the river front and cross-levees running back 
to the lower and uninhabited lands. As the floods 
were allowed to roam at will over every other part 
of the valley it was both easy and inexpensive to 
construct levees sufficient to accomplish the very 
limited results intended. Before many years had 
elapsed, however, the richness of these alluvial lands 
had attracted Cjuite a large population, and the 
levees were rapidly extended until by 1858 nearly 
the whole basin was leveed. Between 1861 and 
1865, neglect and the ravages of war destroyed the 
greater part of this work, but with the return of 
peace it was promptly taken up again and has ever 
since been prosecuted with more or less vigor. Until 
1882 every dollar expended on this work had been 
raised by taxation of those dwelling in the valley. 
In 1879 the Mississippi River Commission was cre- 
ated by Congress and charged with inquiring into 
the best methods of improving the river for naviga- 
tion purposes, and for the prevention of overflows. 
In 1882 it allotted $1,300,000 to be expended in 
closing the crevasses made in the levees by the great 
flood of 1882. This was the first money ever expended 
by the Government in levee building. This act of the 
Commission greatly excited the hopes of the people of 
the valley and aroused them to efforts which may 
well be described as stupendous. Since that date 
about $27,000,000 have been expended in the con- 
struction of levees. Of this the Government has pro- 
vided about $12,000,000 and the people of the 
valley about $15,000,000. When the flood of 1897 
broke upon us there were about 1,300 miles of levees. 



None of these levees were of the dimensions regarded 
by the engineers as necessary to withstand such a 
flood as tliat of 1882, and a considerable part of the 
St. Francis front was not leveed at all. We had 
hoped that such a flood as that would not come, at 
least until we were better prepared to cope with it, 
but we were disappointed. The flood of 1897 ex- 
ceeded that of 1882. .Judged by duration and 
height combined it has no equal. On March 
25th it- reached its highest stage at Cairo, which 
was 51.6 on the gauge. The highest gauge read- 
ing before recorded was 52.02, reached by the 
flood of 1883 on February 27th. That flood was so 
short, however, that in no other respect can it l)e 
compared with that of 1897. The magnitude of the 
flood of ]8')7 can best be appreciated from the fact 
that it practically stood for thirty-three days at 
Cairo at and over 49 feet on the gauge. The levee 
system being very much stronger and more exten- 
sive than ever before, the flood elevation all along 
the river was greater than during any previous 
floods. This, of course, was to be expected. The 
levees along the St. Francis basin were so incomplete 
that in many places the water broke through or ran 
over them. Several crevasses occuri-ed on the Ar- 
kansas side above the mouth of the White river, 
and four or five along the front of the Yazoo basin. 
Between the mouth of the White river and a point 
nearly opposite ^' icksburg where the Briggs crevasse 
occurred, there was no break on the west side. One 
other break, a nearly harmless one, occurred in the 
Tensas line, and a small one, which was promptly 
closed, occurred just below Baton Rouge. The total 
length of levee destroyed was 8.7 miles, being liut 
.63 of 1 per cent, of the whole work. 

The increasing strength of the levees will be best 
understood by a comparison of the loss inflicted upon 
them by previous floods. In 1882 the total number 
of crevasses in the levees was 284, aggregating 56.09 
miles in width. In 1883 the number of crevasses 
was 224, with an aggregate width of 34.1 miles. In 
1884 the crevasses numbered 204, aggregating 10.64 
miles in width. In 1890 the total number of cre- 
vasses was 23, aggregating 4} miles in width. 

In 1897 but little over one-third of all the alluvial 
lands from Cairo to the Gulf were inundated. This 
includes the lands in the St. Francis basin, which 
should not be taken into account in estimating the 
protection aff'orded by the levee system, inasmuch 
as quite one-third of its front had not been levied 
at all. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



23 



No man can say tbut our levee system, incom- 
plete though it is, has not afforded a vast amount of 
protection, or justly draw from the experience of the 
past the conclusion that it is not within the power 
of man to build levees strong enough to absolutely 
restrain the floods. To my mind the work pre- 
sents no engineering difficulties, and supported bj' 
ample funds, I have no doubt that it would be 
speedily finished. All of the engineers who have ever 
been connected with it, whether local or members of 
the Army Corps, are of one mind in this regard. If 
protection cannot be afforded by levees, it cannot be 
had at all, and if it cannot be had all of the back lands 
— and they constitute the greater part — must be aban- 
doned. If they must be subjected to perpetual recur- 
ring overflows they cannot be inhabited. The losses 
accompanying overflows, the uncertainty of making- 
crops after they have subsided, the sickness likely to 
follow them, and the great inconveniences always at- 
tending them would gradually, perhaps, but never- 
tlieless surely, cause their abandonment. The min- 
imized population and production thus cau.sed, to- 
gether with the interruption of traffic, would certainly 
drive the railroads out. Thoughtful men understand 
all this, and, undeterred by croakers and occasional 
disasters, will press forward bravely in the future, 
as they have done in the past, and never ]a,y down 
their arms until the battle has l)een fought and 
won. 

Much has been said about the outlet plan. I do 
not intend to point out the many serious objections 
to it. It is well, however, to invite attention to one 
or two facts. The first point below Cairo where a 
real outlet can be had is at the head of the Atcha- 
falaya river. By real outlet I mean such a drawing 
off of water from the main channel as that it will 
not return to it again, but find its way to the sea by 
some other route. It is a misnomer to speak of the 
overflow of water into the St. Francis basin or the 
Yazoo basin as an outlet, inasmuch as it returns to 
the river again, in the former case at the mouth of 
the St. Francis river, and in the latter- at tlie Vicks- 



burg hills. In my Judgment, except in the case of 
floods shorter and quicker than any I have knowl- 
edge of, so that the flood wave would pass off before 
the overflow water in such basins as I have referred 
to could retvirn to the river, no relief can be had in 
that direction. Even real outlets do not give appre- 
ciable relief above them. In 1890 a crevasse occurred 
in the levee at Nita, La., on the east bank, about 60 
miles above New Orleans. It was 3,000 feet wide 
and 15 feet deep, and actual measurement showed 
that it carried off 400,000 cubic feet of water per 
second, which equaled 30 per cent, of the entire 
discharge of the river immediately above the cre- 
vasse. Not one drop of water going through it ever 
returned to the river. Here we had an ideal oppor- 
tunity to test the efficacy of outlets as a means of 
lowering the flood surface. The flood elevation was 
lowered a foot and a half immediately below the 
crevasse, and one foot at New Orleans, 60 miles 
below, while at Plaquemine, 50 miles above, no 
effect whatever was pi-oduced. 

Levee building offers the only relief according to 
my understanding of the problem, though, being 
but a layman, I would not set ray judgment up 
against the engineers, and am willing to follow 
whithersoever they lead. The magnitude of the 
work, however, is such that it can only be accom- 
plished by the strong arm and abundant resources 
of the Federal Government, and the dwellers in the 
Great Valley should be satisfied with nothing short 
of absolute National control of the Avhole c^uestion. 
Abundant grounds could be assigned if space and 
time would permit it, upon which they can safely 
base the claim that it is the duty of the Govern- 
ment to come to their rescue. If the General Gov- 
ernment should assume entire control and supply 
its engineers with requsite means, we should soon 
see magnificent lines of levee, properly located, 
carefully constructed, constantly repaired and 
guarded, behind which the people ot the valley 
could make their liomes and sow and harvest their 
crops iu peace and safety. 



24 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: 




^/rr^. Jij^o<^^^^<^JUi^^r^ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



25 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

SOME CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE QUESTION 



By Justice N. C. BLANCHARD, of Louisiana Supreme Court 



THE Mississippi river is tlie great sewer of our 
country. It drains the waters that fall upon 
more than twenty-five States of the Union. Even 
the rain that falls upon the western portion of the 
State of New York finds its way to the Gulf of 
Mexico through the soil of Louisiana. Steamboats 
have penetrated as far as the town of Olean, in the 
State of New York, away up on the Alleghany river, 
which in turn pours into the Ohio, which in turn 
empties into the Mississippi and then into the Gulf. 

And far from that point — away to the westward 
beyond Fort Benton, in Montana, or to the tops of 
the Rocky Mountains — this great drainage basin 
extends. 

From above the Canadian line on the north, to the 
sun-kissed waves of the Mexican gulf on the south, 
the rainfall of nearly one-half of the entire northern 
portion of the American continent finds its way 
through the State of Louisiana to the sea. 

The Mississippi river is too great a national feature 
of our country to be handled by any State or aggre- 
gation of States. No other power than that of the 
National Government is potential enough to take it 
in hand and make it perform its two-fold function of 
affording a national highway for the commerce of 
the Republic and of discharging its flood waters 
safely into the Gulf of Mexico. 

The river is the property of the Federal Govern- 
ment. It is its property in the sense that its juris- 
diction over it is paramount to that of the States 
which border upon it. The States cannot say what 
shall be done with the river or to it, nor how it 
shall be treated. They are not permitted to divert 
it, nor change its course, nor to injure or interfere 
with its navigation. 

Suppose Congress should withhold its hand and 
its money, and do nothing adequately towards 
restraining the flood waters of the river and prevent- 
ing inundations. Ill default of such action by the 
General Government the right of self-preservation 
arises, and the States and individuals in the valley 



are themselves entitled to take the matter in hand 
and resort to such means as they may devise to con- 
trol the flood discharge of the river for their own 
protection and for the protection of their property. 
Suppose, then, that the dwellers in the lower valley 
of the river, despairing of adequate Congressional 
action, should resort to the plan of opening innu- 
merable outlets all along the line of the river in 
every direction available, on the idea advanced by 
some, but denied by the best authority, that outlets 
contribute to the prevention of floods. They might 
so dissipate and scatter the waters of the river by 
means of these outlets that the navigable character 
of the great stream might be seriously impaired, if 
not entirely lost or destroyed. Suppose they were 
attempting such a thing, would not the strong arm 
of the Federal Government bo exerted to prevent 
it? Would not Congress say: "You shall not 
construct works or so treat the Mississippi river as 
to destroy its navigable character? " Undoubtedly. 
When Mr. Jefferson acquired the territory known as 
Louisiana from France the great and controlling 
idea actuating that acquisition was that the Ameri- 
can Union should control the entire country through 
which flows the Mississippi river, in order that the 
river might be forever open as a great highway for 
the commerce of the world. 

The United States, then, is interested in preserving 
the navigable character of the river, and mjist neces- 
sarily check, by legislation or other means, the con- 
struction of works that may be designed to destroy, or 
which might have the effect of destroying, its navi- 
gation. But could the Government do this without, 
in justice and fairness, assuming the obligation it- 
self of so curbing and restraining the river as to give 
a safe and easy discharge of its flood waters ? The 
question admits of but one answer : It could not. 

It has been doubted by some that there is consti- 
tutional authority in Congress to appropriate public 
funds to prevent the floods of the river. 

The constitutional auiUcjnty to appropriate money 



26 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



for purposes of channel improvement of the liver to 
benefit navigation is not denied, under tlie power 
vested in Congress by the Constitution to regulate 
commerce ; but it has been denied that there is war- 
]'ant in the Constitution for Congress to go-further 
and appropriate money for the direct purpose of re- 
strainiug the flood waters of the river. 

While somewhat of a strict constructionist of the 
Constitution, I have no trouble in deducing author- 
ity from that instrument justifying Congress in ap- 
propriating funds for the two-fold purpose of improv- 
ing the navigation of the river and of restraining its 
flood waters. 

An enemy invades us. Our people fly to arms. 
Points of defence are strengthened. The eye of 
strategy selects other points to be fortified and de- 
fended. Congress votes the money and immediately 
long lines of breastworks guard our frontier where 
attack is apprehended. 

But here is an enemj- who comes in the form of 
raging watei's, sweeping down in resistless might 
from the North u^jon the sunny valleys of the West 
and South, bringing devastation, destruction, death. 
He raids through the country, rioting in ruin, and 
millions, panic-stricken, flee at his approach, leav- 
ing their all to be swallowed up in the wild vortex 
of destruction. The wasting presence lasts but a 
couple of months, but in that time there has been a 
destruction of property, present and prospective, 
equal in value to many millions of dollars. {See 
engravings of crevasses.) 

It is the duty of Congress to say to these people 
who have so often experienced the disasters of inun- 
dation that, even as we would erect breastworks on 
our frontier to repel the threatened invasion of a 
warlike foe, so will we build levees along the great 
river to beat back its surging waters, threatening- 
destruction well-nigh equal to what a human enemy 
could inflict. 

But, it may be argued, the delegation of power to 
Congress to " repel invasions, to protect the States 
against invasion," has reference to a human foe. I 
grant that this is the usual and ordinary meaning 
or significance given to the term, and it is likely 
that the framers of the Constitution had in contem- 
plation a human foe when they inserted that clause. 
The connection, too, in which it is used gives addi- 
tional weight to the argument. But still, the power 
conferred by the words " repel invasions," by the 
clause " The United States * * * shall protect each 
of them (the States) against invasion," is a general 



one, and might well and reasonably include defend- 
ing the country against danger or harm of any kind. 

Suppose some monster, like the fabled dragon of 
ancient times, were to rise up out of the deep and 
invade the land, spreading devastation, destruction, 
pestilence and death around him. Does any one 
doubt the constitutional power and duty of Congress 
to " repel " his invasion, to bring the strong arm of 
the Government to bear against him, to make war 
upon and kill and destroy him? I think not. And 
yet, there are those to be found who deny to Con- 
gress the power to " repel " the invasion of waters, 
to throttle this monster of inundation whose period- 
ical visitation of the fairest portion of our country is 
but the recurring occasion for a carnival of waste, 
ruin, rapine. 

The Constitution (Art. IV, Section 3) provides : 

" That Congress shall have power to dispose of and 
make all needful rules and regulations respecting 
the territory or other property belonging to the 
United States." 

In the Grratiot case (14 Peters, 537) the Supreme 
Court of the United States, construing the above 
clause, said : 

'•'The term 'territory,' as here used, is merely de- 
scriptive of one kind of property, and is equivalent to 
the word ' lands.' And Congress has the same power 
over it as over any other property belonging to the 
United States ; and this power is vested in Congress 
without limitation." 

In the case of McCulloch vs. Maryland (4 Wheaton, 
422) the Chief Justice, as the organ of the court, 
speaking of this clause of the Constitution and the 
powers of Congress growing out of it, applies it to 
territorial governments, and says all admit their con- 
stitutionality. 

Story says (volume 2, page 228) ; 

" No one has ever doubted the authority of Con- 
gress to erect territorial governments within the ter- 
ritory of the United States, under the general lan- 
guage of the clause ' to make all needful rules and 
regulations.' " 

He continues : 

" The power is not confined to the territor}^ of the 
United States, but extends to ' other property be- 
longing to the United States ' ; so that it may be 
applied to the due regulation of all other personal 
and real property rightfully belonging to the United 




WATER FROM A CREVASSE RUNNING M:\iNM HEAVY MCOODS 



28 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



States. And so it has been constantly understood 
and acted on." 



Now, then, if the Mississippi river is the property 
of the General Government, it is as much subject to 
" regulation " as the landed property or territory of 
the United States. And this power to regulate in- 
cludes curbing, controlling, restraining the river 
within its own proper metes and bounds by means 
of levees, dikes, or other works, as Congress may, in 
its discretion, see proper to adopt, for, in the lan- 
guage of the Gratiot case, " this power is vested in 
Congress without limitation." 

But it may be denied that the Mississippi river is 
the pi'operty of the United States iu the sense that 
Congress may, under the povvcr to regulate, direct 
the construction of works to restrain its waters 
within their proper channel. 

The Mississippi river is a great national highway. 
It belongs as much to the United States as would a 
great trunk line of railroad that had been con- 
structed, stocked and was being operated by the 
Government. In the Act of Congress enabling the 
people of Louisiana to form a constitution there is a 
provision that the State Convention shall " pass an 
ordinance providing that the river Mississippi and 
the navigable rivers and waters leading into the 
same or into the Gulf of Mexico shall be common 
highways and forever free, as well to the inhabi- 
tants of the said State as to other citizens of the 
United States." And in the Act for the admission 
of Louisiana, the above provision as to the naviga- 
tion of the Mississippi is made one of the funda- 
mental conditions of admission. Similar conditions 
were likcM'ise im[)Osed upon the admission of the 
States of Mississipiai, Missouri and Arkansas. 

In the case of The Lhiited States vs. The New Bed- 
ford Bridge (Woodbur}' & Minot's Reports, 421), 
Mr. Justice Woodbury used the following language : 

" For purposes of foreign commerce and of that 
from State to State, the navigable rivers of the 
whole countiy seem to me to be within the jurisdic- 
tion of the General Government, with all the powers 
over them for such purposes (whenever they choose 
to exercise them) which existed previously in the 
States or now exist with Parliament in England." 

In the case to Corfield vs. Coryell (4 Washington 
Circuit Court Reports, 379), Mr. Justice Washington 
said : 

" The Grant to Congress to regulate commerce on 



the navigable waters belonging to the several States 
renders those waters the public property of the 
United States for all purposes of navigation and com- 
mercial intercourse, subject only to Congressional 



regulation." 



And in the case of Gilman vs. Philadelphia (3 
Wallace, 724), it was said : 

" The power to regulate commerce comprehends 
the control for that purpose and to the extent neces- 
sary of all the navigable waters of the United States 
which are accessible from a State other than those in 
which they lie. For this purpose they are the pub- 
lic property of the nation, and subject to all the re- 
quisite legislation of Congress. This necessarily 
includes the power to keep them open and free from 
any obstruction to their navigation, interposed by the 
States or otherwise ; to remove such obstructions 
when they exist, and to provide by such sanctions as 
they may. deem proper against the recurrence of the 
evil, and for the punishment of offenders. For these 
purposes Congress possesses all the powers which ex- 
isted in the States before the adoption of the Na- 
tional Constitution, and which have always existed 
in the Parliament in England. It is for Congress to 
determine when its full power shall be brought into 
activity, and as to the regulations and sanctions 
which shall be provided." 

It cannot, therefore, be doubted that the river, for 
all practical purposes, is the property of the General 
Government and subject to its "regulation," 
whether as respects prescribing rules for governing 
the commerce and traffic which make use of it as 
a highway, or as respects controlling it in the sense 
of denying the dominion and jurisdiction of the 
States, or other powers ; or as respects preventing 
the river from rising up out of its customary chan- 
nel and spreading over the country. 

It may be objected by some that should the Fed- 
eral Government provide the ways and means for 
the construction of an adequate levee system for the 
protection of the allnvial valley of the river, inas- 
much as these levees will have to be constructed on 
the banks over Avhich the jurisdiction of the States 
respectively extend, contention may arise between 
the State government and the National Government 
on this point ; that the State government might 
deny the right of the National Government to con- 
trol the levees, to protect them after constructing 
them, and that the question thus raised may become 



Past— Present— Prospective 



29 




INTERRUPTION OF MAIL COMMUNICATION TEN MILES FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER iFLOOD OF 1897) 




INTERRUPTION OF MAIL COMMUNICATION TWENTY MILES FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER (FLOOD OF 1897) 



30 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



a fruitful source of trouble between the .sovereignty 
vested in the State and that reposing in the Federal 
Government. 

That trouble may ever arise on this score is a 
conjecture so remote as to be unworthy of serious 
consideration. What there is may be easily obvi- 
ated by the insertion in the act of appropriation of 
a clause that there should be no expenditure of 
nioney within the territorial limits of a State until 
the State shall have ceded to the National Govern- 
ment the right to control and protect the public 
works to be constructed. 

Louisiana has already done this in Art. 215 of her 
Constitution of 1879, and Art. 240 of her Constitu- 
tion of 1898 (the present one). Full authority is 
given the National Government to construct such 
public works along the Mississippi river as Congress 
may see proper to order, and the control of the same 
after their construction is ceded to the National 
Government. 

The State of Louisiana, in incorporating this 
grant of authority in her organic law, recognized 
what is now generally conceded, viz, that there is 
no power competent to handle the questions pre- 
sented by this great river save that of the Federal 
Government. No State can do it : 

First. Becavise the work is too vast, too costly 
for any State through which the river runs to un- 
dertake it. 

Second. Because any State attempting it would 
be circumscribed b_y its own territorial limits. 

Third. Because the river, being the property of 
the United States, Congress alone has power under 
the grant to " make all needful rules and regulations 
respecting the territory and other j^roperty belonging 
to the United States," to say what works shall be 
done or plans adopted for its regulation. 

Under the authority " to establish post-oihces and 
post-roads " the Government of the LTnited States 
has established thousands of the former in the al- 
luvial valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries, 
and provided a jjerfect network of the latter. 
Daily over thousands of miles of roadwaj^ and rail- 
way and water-way in the great valley is the Ignited 
States mail carried, supplying innumerable post- 
offices and aftbrding facilities indispensable for the 
dissemination of intelligence, for the diffusion of the 
market reports, the crop and commercial reports, 
and the news generally so absolutely needed for the 
■»,'elfare, the happiness and the prosperit}^ of the 
people and the counti'y. 



Millions of money, besides great labor and much 
valuable time, have been expended in building up 
and perfecting this system, which in the normal 
state of the country moves with the precision, ease 
and regularity of v,^ell-ordered machinery. But 
periodicalh' the great river swells up out of its banks 
and becomes a great inland sea, producing an ab- 
normal condition of affairs, and disarranging, stop- 
ping, destroying for the time being the postal service, 
the transportation and delivery of the mails. 

On our statute-books, as the enactments of Con- 
gress, stand stringent penal laws denouncing penalties 
against any and all who shall willfully impede, ni- 
terfere with or stop the mails ; and the courts of the 
United States hold sittings all over the valley to in- 
force these laws. 

But here is a great convulsion of nature, as it were, 
that stops not one mail but a thousand, that breaks 
up not one post-office but hundreds, and against 
which the courts and the criminal laws for the pro- 
tection and security of the mails avail nothing. 
{See engravings.) To prevent a coiitinuance of this 
is the strong arm of the Government powerless ? 
No. Scientific, wise, experienced men, who have 
made a study of the river and its phenomena, of the 
laws of its currents, and of the conditions that affect 
it, say no ! They have pointed out how these 
destructive floods may be avoided, and thus how the 
mails of the United States, their carriage and deliv- 
ery, may be protected. 

Now, then, does any one doul)t that from the au- 
thority " to establish post-offices and post-roads " 
flows not only the power but the duty to protect 
them? No reasonable man can doubt it. No law- 
yer will hesitate for an instant to declare that the 
power to protect is incidental to the power to estab- 
lish. The constitutionality of the laws denouncing 
penalties against the stoppage of, or interference with, 
the mails has never been doubted, yet they were en- 
acted for the protection of the mails, and depend for 
their validity upon the power to protect being inci- 
dental to the power to establish. Says the Supreme 
Court of the United States, in 4 AVheaton, 417 : 
" This power (to establish post-offices and post-roads) 
is executed by the single act of making the establish- 
ment. But from this has been inferred the power 
and duty of carrj^ing the mail along the post-road 
from one post-office to another. And from this im- 
plied power has again been inferred the right to pun- 
ish those Avho steal letters from the post-office or rob 
the mail. It may be said with some plausibility that 



Past— Present— Prospective 



31 



the right to cany the mail and to punish those who 
rob it is not indispensably necessary to the establish- 
ment of a post-office and post-road. This right is 
indeed essential to the beneficial exercise of the 
power, but not indispensably necessarj' to its exist- 
ence. 

No one doubts or denies the right or power of the 
Government to punish the robber of the mails. Is 
it not just as legitimate, just as constitutional, to pro- 
tect against the ravages of fl-ater as against the 
knaver}^ of the robber ? 

The power of Congress to regulate commerce in- 
cludes the regulation of intercourse and navigation. 
(18 Howard, 421.) 

Commerce undoubtedlj^ is traffic ; but it is some- 
thing more. It is intercourse. It describes the 
commercial intercourse between nations and parts 
of nations in all its bi'anches, and is regulated by 
prescribing rules for carrying on that intercourse. 
(Story, Vol. 2, p. 4.) 

Tliis power to regulate commerce is a very gen- 
eral one, and a wide latitude of construction has 
been given it. 

If a levee system tends, in any appreciable degree, 
to afford ease and safety to commerce, to intercourse 
which is essential to the carrying on of commerce, 
then appropriations of money by Congress to con- 
struct and maintain such a system finds abundant 
justification in this grant of power. 

That it does afford ease and safety to commerce 
we have the declaration of the River Commission in 
repeated reports to Congress, as well as the state- 
ments of individual members of the commission 
before the committees of Congress. These say that 
the levees give safety and ease to navigation and 
promote and facilitate commerce and trade by estab- 
lishing banks or landing places above the reach of 
floods, upon w'hich produce may be placed while 
awaiting shipment, and where steamboats and other 
craft may land in time of high water. 

If the Federal Government can legitimately ex- 
pend millions in affording facilities to commerce bj' 
improving the low-waler navigation of rivers, by 
parity of reasoning it may just as legitimately ex- 
pend millions in improving the high -wafer naviga- 
tion of rivers like the Mississippi, liable to overflow 
their banks. 

By the navigation of rivers is meant not alone 
the passage of steamers and other craft up and 
down, but in a larger sense it includes likewise 
facilities for landing along the rivers for the loading 



and unloading of cargoes, the taking on and jiutting 
off of passengers, etc. In other words, it embraces 
the affording of all needful facilities for intercourse, 
trade, traffic, and commerce, besides the width, 
depth, and extent of water requisite for the safe pas- 
sage of boats. 

Again, navigation is only one of the elements of 
commerce. It is an element of commerce because 
it affords the means of transporting merchandise 
and the products of the country, the interchange of 
which is commerce itself The river is but an 
instrument of commerce. 

The power to regulate commerce is a power to 
regulate the instruments of commerce. (Gray vs. 
Clinton Bridge, 16 American Law Register, 152.) 

It extends to the persons who conduct it as well 
as to the instruments used. (Cooley vs. Board of 
Wardens, 12 Howard, 316.) 

The commerce of the river and the commerce 
across the river are both commerce among the States, ' 
and- may be regulated by Congress, and should be 
regulated by that body when any regulation is nec- 
essary. (16 American Law Register, 154.) 

It is now conceded that Congress, under the com- 
mercial clause, may regulate railroads. May it not 
also regulate the Mississippi, a national highway 
and an instrument Avhich commerce makes use of, 
so as to prevent it disturbing the commerce and in- 
tercourse going on by rail and by highway in its 
valley ? 

The term " to regulate commerce " gives the power 
to restrain the destructive force of the thing used by 
commerce in its transactions. It is an incongruity 
to say that Congress, in the exercise of that power, 
may deepen or enlarge a river but cannot curb its 
force or exercise restraint over it. 

The power " to regulate commerce " necessarily 
includes protection to commerce. This idea has been 
acted on from the coniniencement of the Govern- 
ment. The construction and maintenance all along 
our coasts of light-houses, beacon-lights, fog-signals, 
sea-walls and break-waters attest this. All are for 
the protection and convenience of commerce. 

The laws of the United States require steam-ves- 
sels to pay for the licen.'^e oi' privilege to navigate, 
and the officei's manning such vessels are required 
to pay for the license or privilege of pursuing their 
respective calling or vocation, such as master, pilot, 
mate, etc. These vessels engage in the coasting 
trade as well as in the carrying trade, and Congress 
is as much under obligation to afford the needful 



32 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



facilities for the transaction of this coasting trade as 
it is for the transportation of through freights. One 
of the facilities needed along the Mississippi for the 
coasting trade is convenient landing places at all times. 

In seasons of flood these landing places are sup- 
plied by levees, and, in this sense, levees are but 
continuing piers or quays. 

This question of regulating the Mississippi river 
certainly comes within the general police power of 
the Government, under Avhich power " persons and 
property are subjected to all kinds of restraint and 
burdens in order to secure the general comfort, 
health and prosperity of the State." (27 Vt., 149 ; 
5 Otto, 471.) 

In the latter case the Supreme Court, speaking of 
the deposit in Congress of the power to regulate 
commerce, says : 

" What that power is it is difficult to define with 
sharp precision. It is generally said to extend to 
making regulations promotive of domestic order, 
morals, health and safety. As was said in Thorp 
vs. The Rutland and Burlington Railroad Company 
(27 Vt., 149), it extends to the protection of the lives, 
limbs, health, comfort and quiet of all persons, and 
the protection of all property within the State. Ac 
cording to the maxim. Sic ufere tuo ut alieimm non 
hulas, which, being of universal application, it must 
of course be within the range of legislative action to 
define the mode and manner in which every one 
may so use his own as not to injure others." 

If the Government fails to exercise its police pow- 
ers to control its property, and this property, like a 
great river, rises and inundates the country, and 
great damage to individuals results, the Government 
is, or ought to be, responsible. 

Take the case of an Indian tribe placed by the 
Government upon a reservation, and over which it 
exercises jurisdiction and surveillance. From some 
cause an outbreak occurs. The Indians throw off 
the restraint they are under, band themselves to- 
gether, commence hostilities, and raid the surround- 
ing country. For the damage and loss occasioned 
individuals by such an outbreak the Government 
has repeatedly acknowledged its liability, and Con- 
gress has over and over again appropriated money 
to make good such losses. 

Is there not some ground for claiming that the 
Government should be equally responsible for losses 
occasioned by the Mississippi when it, in time of 
flood, raids the adjacent country ? 



The Government not only assumes paramount 
jurisdiction over the river, but asserts a proprietary 
interest in and to it. 

Why, then, should it not be under obligation to 
restrain and control it equal to the restraint and 
control it admits it should exercise over an Indian 
tribe placed by it upon a reservation ? 

The first clause of Section 8, Art. I of the Con- 
stitution, prescribes that " Congress shall have 
power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts 
and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defence and general welfare of the United 
States." 

I agree with the interpretation that the above 
clause was not intended to invest Congress with the 
independent and general power " to provide for the 
general welfare," and that the latter part of the 
clause, to wit, " to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defence and general welfare," is but a modi- 
fication or qualification of the preceding part, viz : 
"Congress shall have power to lay and. collect 
taxes, etc." 

Nothing more was granted by that part (" to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defence and 
general welfare ") than a power to appropriate the 
public money raised under the other part (" to lay 
taxes "), etc. 

Said Thomas .lefferson ; 

" To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of 
the United States is to lay taxes for the purpose of 
providing for the general welfare ; for the laying of 
taxes is the power and the general welfare the pur- 
pose for which the power is to be exercised. Con- 
gress are not to lay taxes ad libilum for any purpose 
they please, but only to pay debts or provide for the 
welfare of the Union." 

Under this interpretation, Avhile a general power 
to legislate for the " general welfare " is excluded. 
Congress is still authorized to j^rovide money for the 
common defence and general welfare, and this is 
quite broad enough for the practical purpose we 
have in view. Indeed, the power to lay taxes is in 
express terms given to provide for the common de- 
fence and general welfare. And, as laid down by 
Story : 

" It is not jjretended that when the tax is laid the 
specific objects for which it is laid are to be speci- 
fied, or that it is to be solely applied to those objects." 

It suffices that all taxes must generally be laid 
for one or all of three purposes, namel}'', to pay 



Past— Present— Prospective 



33 



debts, to provide for tlie comiHou defence, or the 
general welfare. And when funds have accumu- 
lated in the Treasury from taxes laid for any or all 
of these purposes, as said by President Monroe in 
his message of ^lay 4, 1 822 : 

" The power of appropriation of the moneys (by 
Congress) is co-extensive ; that is, it maj' be appro- 
priated to any purpose of the common defence and 
general welfare." 

In other words, if oiDerating under the latter 
clause, the taxes laid must be applied to some par- 
ticular measure conducive to the general welfare. 
Or, as laid down by Mr. Story (A"ol. 2, p. 162) : 

" The only limitation upon the power (to appro- 
priate in aid of internal improvements) are those 
prescribed by the terms of the Constitution, that the 
objects shall be for the common defence, or the gen- 
eral welfare of the Union. The true test is whether 
the object be of a local character and local use, or 
whether it be of general benefit to the States. If it 
be purelj' local Congress cannot constitutionally 
appropriate money for the object. But if the benefit 
be general it matters not whether in point of local- 
ity it be one State or several, whether it be of large 
or small extent, its nature and character determine 
the right, and Congress may appropriate money in 
aid of it, for it is then in a just sense for the general 
welfare." 

It is not only the right but the duty of Congress 
to advance the safety, happiness and prosperity of 
the people, and to provide for the general welfare by 
any and every act of legislation within constitu- 
tional limits, which it may deem to be conducive to 
those ends. 

No one will have the temerity to cj[uestion the 
proposition that the protection of the extensive allu- 
vial valley of the Mississippi from destructive floods 
will be in the national sense of that term conducive 
to the general welfare. 

Not one State, but a dozen ; not a few thousand 
people, but millions are directly interested and af- 
lected for weal or woe according as the protection is 
extended or withheld. 

If it were to the general welfare that we should 
acquire this territory, as we did, from France, it is 
equally conducive to the general welfare to preserve 
it as a habitable, cultivatable country, to protect it 
against relegation to its primeval condition of jun- 
gles and swamps. 

Congress has exercised, not without cpestion, it is 



true, but long enough for complete acquiescence, 
the power to lay taxes to protect and encourage do- 
mestic manufactures. 

This has been and is being done on the ground 
that it is conduciA'e to the general welfare to encour- 
age domestic manufactures. But it is not one whit 
more conducive to the general welfare, if as much so, 
than protecting the finest portion of our common 
country for purposes of habitation and cultivation is. 

All must admit that the powers of the Govei'n- 
ment are limited and that its limits are not to be 
transcended. But the sound construction of the 
Constitution must allow the National Legislature 
that discretion, with respect to the means by which 
the powers it confers are to be carried into execution, 
which will enable that body to perform the high 
duties assigned to it in the manner most beneficial to 
the people. (4 Wheaton, 421). 

In McCulloch vs. ^Maryland (4 Wheat., 415) Chief 
•lustice ^Marshall aptly referred to the Constitution 
as " intended to endure for ages to come, and con- 
sequently, to be adapted to the various crises of 
human affairs." 

And in Hunter vs. Martin (1 "Wheat., 304) it Avas 
said : " The instrument (Constitution) was not in- 
tended to provide merely for the exigencies of a few 
years, but was to endure through a long lapse of 
ages, the events of which were locked up in the in- 
scrutable purposes of Providence. It could not be 
foreseen what new changes and modifications of 
power might be indispensable to effectuate the gen- 
eral objects of the charter. * * '" Hence, its pow- 
ers are expressed in general terms, leaving the 
Legislature, from time to time, to adopt its own 
means to effectuate legitimate objects, and to mould 
and model the exercise of its powers as its own wis- 
dom and the public interests should reciuire." 

When the great Father of Waters, unhindered bj' 
an adequate levee system, rises out of its banks and 
sweeps with resistless might over the vallej', a more 
than crisis, a sad realization of the worst, is upon 
the people of that unhappy section, and this grievous 
afiliction of one of the members of the body-politic, 
in more or less degree, disastrously affects the whole. 

That the capacity to provide for contingencies as 
they may happen exists in the Federal Constitution 
none will deny. 

The trials it has undergone, the tests it has been 
put to and triumphantly emerged from, in the hun- 
dred and odd years of its existence, abundantly 
establish this. 



34 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





<l'^^^4.^^^-^,4-^*?-^-L^ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



35 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

NATURE'S GREATEST HIGHWAY 



By J. A. OCKERSON 



THE Mississippi river is a commercial highway 
of immense value. It penetrates the heart of 
the most fertile section of the Union for a distance of 
about 2,500 miles ; its navigable tributaries, aggre- 
gating over 15,000 miles in length, reach out in all 
directions toward the remote limits of this great val- 
ley. It drains a territory whose area equals in 
extent the combined area of Austria, Germany, Hol- 
land, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Norway and 
Great Britain. The river itself, in its winding 
course, covers a range of 6 J degrees in longitude and 
18| degrees in latitude. 

The headwaters of its tributaries extend in longi- 
tude from New York on the east to western Mon- 
tana on the west ; and reach in latitude from British 
America on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the 
south ; or about 1,800 miles in longitude and 1,500 
miles in latitude. 

This vast drainage area, 1,256,000 square miles in 
extent, is equal to nearly one-half of the total area 
of the United States. It touches 30 States, 2 Terri- 
tories and 2 provinces of the British possessions. 
Only eight States to the eastward, and seven States 
to the westward, lie entirel}^ beyond the confines of 
this great basin. 

The rain which falls on this area is gathered in 
countless rivulets which grow in strength and volume 
as they unite with one another until finally they 
reach the dignity of a navigable stream, or a mighty 
river, all moving down to mingle their waters in the 
parent stream which carries the enormous burden 
through narrow confines to the Gulf of Mexico. 

At flood time the discharge amounxsto two million 
cubic feet per second. This enormous volume, 
gathered from regions far remote from the lower 
alluvial valley, would compass its destruction were 
it not guided and restrained by artificial embank- 
ments. 

The floods not only bring down great volumes of 
water, but also carry vast cjuantities of sediment 
gathered from the Rocky Mountains in the remote 



Northwest to the AUeghanies in the East. The 
burden thus gathered is borne along on its journey 
to the sea, reinforced as it goes by immense cjuan- 
tities of material eroded from the river banks, all of 
which is carried along until the load becomes too 
great for the velocity, when a portion of it is 
dropped. This action, often repeated, results in sand 
bars which obstruct the free navigation of the river. 
These obstructions do not cover more than 10 pei 
cent, of the river from St. Louis to the Gulf, the 
depth for the remaining 90 per cent, being ample to 
satisfy all demands of navigation. For a distance 
of 300 miles from the Gulf to the luouth of Red 
river, the depth of water is sufficient at all times to 
float the largest sea-going craft. 

The regulation and control involve two distinct 
problems ; one, the improvement of low-water navi- 
gation to such an extent that full cargoes may be 
carried to the sea at all times ; and the other, the 
control of the floods so that the alluvial valley can 
be inhabited with safety and its unparalleled fertility 
can be made available by cultivation. 

It has been shown that a very large portion of 
the country contributes to the evil conditions of 
sandbar and flood. It seems reasonable that it 
should also assume its share in the great work of 
guiding and controlling the waters so that they will 
flow harmless to the sea, bearing in safety the bur- 
dens of commerce. In like degree, the great benefit; 
incident to good navigation and the opening to cul- 
tivation of extensive tracts of fertile soil will be ben- 
eficially felt in all parts of our country. 

Coming now to the stream itself, it will be de- 
sirable to trace its characteristics from its source in 
northern Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico, 2,250 
miles southward. Various changes due to the in- 
flux of tributaries and other causes are met with as 
it moves towards the sea, and a clear comprehension 
of the physical characteristics of the stream make it 
desirable to consider the river in reaches. 

First. From its source, near Lake Itasca, to Fort 



36 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 




THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER ABOUT A MILE BELOW THE ULTIMATE SOURCE 
AS IT FLOWS INTO NICOLLET MIDDLE LAKE. 

Snelling, at the mouth of the Minnesota river, a 
distance of about 560 miles. 

The source of the Mississippi river lies in a basin 
surrounding Lake Itasca. This basin has an area 
of about 25 square miles and is well defined by a 
range of pine-clad hills of consideraHe height and 
composed of glacial drift. 

The river has its origin m a series of springs 
lying along the base of the hills in the southwestern 
part of the basin, and their waters coming together 
form a brook, which flows through middle and lower 
Nicollet lakes and enters the west arm of Lake 
Itasca near its southern extremity. 

Lake Itasca is about 3|- miles long, and it has a 
maximum depth of about 50 feet. The Mississippi 
river flows from the northern extremity of the lake 
with a width of about 30 feet, a depth of 5 feet, and 
a velocity of about oh feet per second. 

The head of commercial navigation reaches to 
within 25 miles of the source of the river. This is 
the highest point reached at present by the lumber 
interests, and thousands of pine logs are floated 
down every summer. 

The river flows north for a distance of about 60 
miles and then turns eastward, passing through 
Bernidji, Cass and Winibigoshish lakes, after which 



the course is changed to a more southerly direc- 
tion. 

Near the Lipper part of the reach lie the great res- 
ervoirs, which have a storage capacity of 93,476,- 
000,000 cubic feet of water. The drainage area is 
about 20,000 square miles in extent, 21 i per cent, 
of which is covered by the reservoirs. 

The water in these reservoirs is allowed to escape 
during the low-water months, giving a marked in- 
crease in the depth of the stream as far down as 
Lake Pepin, a distance of nearly 500 miles below 
the upper reservoir. 

From the source to Aitkin, Minn., a distance, hj 
river, of about 345 miles, the stream for the most 
part flows between low, marshy banks. The oscilla- 
tions in stage are small, and the free flow is inter- 
rupted by reservoir dams and occasional rapids. It 
is generally locked in ice and snow from November 
to April. 

Between Aitkin and the mouth of the Minnesota 
river, a distance of about 205 miles by river, there 
are several obstructions in the shape of water-power 
dams and the falls of St. Anthony. Owing to these 
obstructions there is very little steamboat traffic in 
this portion of the river. The traffic in lumber and 
logs, however, amounts to 700,000,000 feet during 
each short summer season. 

No accurate determination has been made of the 
elevation of the extreme head of the river above sea 




. THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AS IT ENTERS THE WEST ARM OF 
LAKE ITASCA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



37 




THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AS IT LEAVES NORTHERN 
EXTREMITY OF ITASCA LAKE. 

level, but it has been roughly determined as *1,560 
feet. At the mouth of the Minnesota River the ele- 
vation is 690 feet. The fall in the first reach is 56 
per cent, of the total fall of the entire river and aver- 
ages about 1.5 feet per mile. 

The extreme oscillation of stage at the lower end 
of the reach is 19.5 feet. The discharge varies from 



*See map of Hon. J. V 
Park. 



Brewer, Commissioner Itas"a State 



1,000 cubic feet per second at low water, to 117,400 
cubic feet per second at high water. 

The tributary streams in this reach are numerous 
but small, the principal ones being the Swan, Pine, 
Crow Wing, Elk and Rum rivers. 

Second. From mouth of Minnesota River to the 
mouth of the Missouri River a distance of 705 miles. 

The chief tributaries coming into this reach of 
river are the Minnesota, St. Croix, Chippewa, Wis- 
consin, Iowa, Des Moines and the Illinois. 

In the upper portion of this reach the river is di- 
vided into numerous sloughs which serve as chan- 
nels in high water, many of which are dry at low water. 

The banks are generally low and the oscillation 
between high and low water at the lower end of the 
reach has a maximum range of 26.5 feet. 

The discharge ranges from about 2,000 cubic feet 
per second at extreme low water to 350,000 cubic 
feet per second at high water. 

The elevation of the low water at the lower end of 
the reach, above sea level, is 403 feet and the slope 
of the entire reach averages 0.5 feet per mile. 

The M'ater carries but little sediment and it is often 
desirable to pump the material from the bottom and 
deliver the same against the contraction dikes in 
order to make them quickly effective. 




SOME OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER NEAR ITS SOURCE, 



38 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



Comparatively little bank erosion occurs in this 
reach. For a stretch of 21 miles the water flows 
through Lake Pepin, a body of slack water 30 feet 
deep ; at Rock Island and at Keokuk the flow is in- 
terrupted b)' rapids where the bed of the stream is 
solid rock. Before any improvement work was done 
the navigable depth at low water often went down 
to 2J feet ; where the improvement work has 
reached near the stage of completion, the depth 
rarely goes below 4 feet. Navigation is suspended 
during the winter season for a period of four months 
or more when the river is frozen. High water gen- 
erally comes in May and .June and the low water 
begins about the first of September and continues 
until the river thaws out in the spring. 

The general improvement of this portion of the 
river is effected by means of contraction works and 
closure of chutes, aided by dredging. 

At Rock Island Rapids the imjarovement con- 
sists of the removal of rock and concentration of 
volume by dikes and dams. The rapids at Keokuk 
are surmounted by means of a canal with eight 
miles of slack water navigation and with three locks 
having a total lift of 18 feet. 

Third. The third reach extends from the mouth 
of the Missouri to the mouth of the Ohio, a distance 
of about 210 miles. Here the water becomes heav- 
ily charged with sediment, and permeable dikes 
which are used in the improvement works readily 
induce immense deposits. The banks in this reach 
are somewhat higher than those above, and the 
effects of bank erosion are more decided. 

The extreme range between liigh and low water 
at St. Louis is 37 feet, with the single exception of 
the flood of 1844, which reached 41 feet. The low- 
water slope averages about 0.6 feet per mile and the 
discharge ranges from about 45,000 cubic "feet per 
second at low water to 850,000 cubic feet per sec- 
ond at high water. Overflows are not frequent and 
only occur when the floods of the Upper Mississippi 
and Missouri rivers are coincident. The high-water 
stages usually occur in May and .lune and the low- 
water season, beginning in September, often extends 
into the winter months. Sandbars are numerous, 
and the navigable depth at times is as low as 4 feet 
at tlie shoalest points. The river washes the rocky 
bluffs on one bank or the other a greater part of the 
reach, and at Gray's Point, 1,100 miles above the 
mouth, it flows through a rocky gorge for a distance 
of about 7 miles. Below this gorge the normal con- 
ditions of the stream are often affected by backwater 



from the Ohio, which causes a deposit of the sedi- 
ment that becomes a prolific source of annoyance to 
navigation and causes active bank erosion. This 
reach is sometimes frozen over for a month or more 
during the winter, but more often it is open for 
navigation throughout the year. The whole reach 
shows many of the characteristics of the Missouri. 

The principal tributaries coming into the main 
stream in this reach are the Missouri, Merrimac, 
Okaw and Big Muddy rivers. 

The .system of improvement adopted consists of con- 
traction of the low-water channel by means of hurdles 
or permeable dikes, the closure of chutes, the revet- 
ment of banks and the use of hydraulic dredges. 
These works, where comi^leted, have shown very 
good results in the way of increased depth and jus- 
tifies the belief that a navigable depth of at least 
seven feet at extreme low water is entirely practi- 
cable. 

Fourth. The fourth reach extends from the mouth 
of the Ohio to the mouth of the Red river, a dis- 
tance of about 750 miles. At the head of this 
reach comes in the Ohio, reinforced by the Ten- 
nessee, Cumberland and other tributaries, which 
combine to control the flood conditions of the lower 
Mississippi river. The principal tributaries of the 
fourth reach are the St. Francis, White, Arkansas 
and Yazoo, which at times add very largely to the 
flood volume carried by the main stream. 

The Missouri river conditions noted in the third 
reach are no longer the controlling factors except as 
regards sediment ; the great floods which are so de- 
structive come from the Ohio basin. The bed of the 
stream is through deposits which it has built up and 
torn down repeatedly. 

At a few points the lateral movement of the river 
is held in check by the bluffs, but it lies largely 
along the eastern portion of the alluvial j^lain. It 
washes the bluffs at 15 points on the east side and 
at only one point on the west side. The caving in 
the middle third of this portion of the river reaches 
enormous proportions. A large percentage of the 
alluvial banks throughout the reach yield readil}^ to 
the eroding power of the current, and this erosion 
amounts to an average area of about nine acres per 
annum for each mile of river. In places the river 
becomes excessively wide by encroaching on first 
one bank and then on the other, as in the vicinity 
of Point Pleasant, Mo. ; again it becomes exceed- 
ingly crooked by the continued erosion of the con- 
cave bank. The most marked case of this kind lies 



Past— Present— Prospective 



39 



between Arkansas City and Greenville, where the air- 
line distance is about 15 miles while the river dis- 
tance is 40 miles. 

The width of the river reaches a maximum in the 
fourth reach, the high-water banks being sometimes 
two miles apart. The banks are 30 to 45 feet in 
height above low water. Overflows are frequent, ex- 
cept where floods are restrained by levees. The 
sandbars are very large in extent and wooded islands 
and towheads are numerous. 

There are about 40 bars or crossings in this reach 
which may become obstructions to navigation, the 
depths on a few of them, at times, reaching as low as 
5 feet ; but 95 per cent, of the length of the reach 
has ample depth of water to satisfy all of the de- 
jnands of commerce, many of the bends being over 
100 feet deep. It rarely, if ever, happens that all 
of the bars above named show shallow depths at the 
same time or even during the same season. 

Floating ice, at intervals of three or four years, 
enters this portion of the river, but rarely causes the 
suspension of navigation. 

The low-water season covers a period of about 
four months in the fall of the year, daring which 
time navigation may be interrupted by shallow 
water, but now and then entire years pass without 
any such interruptions. The floods usually come 
in the winter or early spring months. The extreme 
range in stage fi'om low to high water is about 53 
feet and the discharge ranges from 65,000 cubic 
feet per second at low water to 2,000,000 cubic feet 
per second at high water. 

The destructive floods enter the alluvial basin at 
the upper end of this reach and sweep its entire 
length, gathering strength as they go and often 
remain at an overflow stage for a period of nearly 
three months. 

To control these floods levees are being con- 
structed on the right bank from Point Pleasant, Mo., 
to Walnut Bend ; from Helena to near mouth of 
White river and from above Arkansas City to 
Bougere, 30 miles above mouth of Red river, a total 
length of levee on right bank of about 490 miles. 
On the left bank the levee begins at the head of 
Horn lake below Memphis and extends to Eagle 
lake above Vicksburg, a total length of 318 miles. 

The small areas lying between the bluffs and the 
river have not yet been leveed, owing to the difficul- 
ties of drainage and the cost which would generally 
far exceed the value of the land protected. 

The elevation of the upper end of the reach at 



low water is about 270 feet, and at the lower end 
the elevation is about 2 feet above sea level. The 
low-water slojje averages 0.35 feet per mile. 

At the head of this reach is where the problem of 
regulation and conti'ol divides into two distinct parts, 
viz, improvement of low-water navigation and con- 
trol of the flood waters to prevent the overflow and 
consequent destruction of nearly 80,000 square miles 
of rich alluvial land. 

The control of the floods can only be accom- 
plished by means of a system of substantial levees 
such as. are now in progress. 

The demands of commerce rec[uire a navigable 
depth of not less than 8 feet at low water, and this 
depth or more can be obtained by means of suitable 
contraction works wdiere the low water stream is too 
wide, by the closure of chutes, the revetment of 
banks and the judicious use of powerful hydraulic 
dredges. 

Thus far the work of maintaining navigable chan- 
nels by means of hydraulic dredging has been 
largely confined to this reach, although some woi'k 
has been done in this line in the second and third 
reaches. 

Fifth This reach extends from the mouth of the 
Red river to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 310 
miles. 

In this portion of the river the channel is naiTOw, 
averaging about a half mile in width and the depth 
sometimes exceeds 200 feet. Bank erosion is slight 
as compared with the fourth reach, sand bars as 
obstructions to navigation are almost unknown and 
neither contraction works or dredging are required. 
Here nature has constructed an ideal channel with 
depths sufficient at all times for the largest sea- 
going craft. For nearly the entire length the water 
is confined to a single channel down to the Head of 
the Passes, there being but two islands. Profit and 
Bayou Goula, in the entire reach. 

As the upper limit of the reach at low water is 
less than 2 feet above mean Gulf level, it often 
happens that the tidal effect is noticeable through- 
out its entire length. 

The Red river is the only tributary in the fifth 
reach which adds to the volume of the main stream. 
. There are several outlets through which the 
waters of the river can flow to the Gulf of Mexico. 
Some have been closed by levees, as Manchac and 
Plaquemine Bayous. The Atchafalaya, La Fourche, 
Collet, The Jump and Cubitts are still open but are 
gradually filling up with deposits of sediment. 



40 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



At the head of this reach is the Atchafalaya, 
which is the first practicable outlet to the sea for 
waters coming down from the great drainage basin 
of the Mississippi. Any water escaping over the 
banks of the stream above this point must return 
again to the main stream to swell the volume already 
in the channel. 

The levees are here built on the immediate banks 
of the stream, and the burdens of a flood gathered 
from a basin 1,800 iiiiles wide must here pass be- 
tween the natural banks and the artificial embank- 
ments raised on them, which are only about half a 
mile apart. The levees on the right bank extend 
from the Atchafalaya to The Jump below Fort 
Jackson, a distance of 287.2 miles. On the left 
bank the levee begins at Baton Rouge and extends 
down to near Fort St. Phillip, a distance of 207.0 
miles. 

The extreme oscillation in stage recorded up to 
the present time at New Orleans is 20.7 feet. 

At the Head of the Passes the river divides into 
three main branches, viz, Southwest pass, South 
pass and Pass a Loutre. South Pass has been im- 
proved by means of jetties, and is now the only 
navigable channel from the river to the sea for 
vessels trading at the port of New Orleans. It has 
a navigable depth of 26 feet while the other passes 
have only 11 feet across the bar at the Gulf. 

Owing to the extraordinaiy increase in size and 
draft of ships. South pass is now altogether too 
small to satisfy the demands of commerce. These 
conditions will soon require the improvement of 
Southwest pass, which has double the width and 
five times the capacitj^ of South pass. A depth of 
35 feet can doubtless be obtained in this pass, and 
this depth will accommodate any vessels which can 
enter the principal Atlantic or foreign ports as they 
now exist. 

The above outline of the physical characteristics 
of the stream will give some idea of the magnitude 
and importance of the problem of the I'egulation 
and control of the Mississippi river. 

Improvement of Navigation. 

The most imjjortant phase of the problem of 
regulation is tlie improvement of navigation. 

In point of economy, the advantages of water 
routes over all other methods of transportation are 
so apparent as to leave no room for discussion. It 
is not too much to say that the cost of transpor- 
tation on the Mississippi river is much lower 



than the freight charges necessary to meet the 
legitimate interest on the actual cost of construction 
and equipment of the best trunk line railroad in 
the country, to say nothing of the maintenance of 
way and operating expenses. 

The importance of preserving a navigable chan- 
nel in the Mississippi river to meet all the demands 
of commerce is, therefore, apparent. 

The permament improvement of a stream of such 
gigantic proportions will necessarily require large 
expenditures of money and a long period of time. 
In the meantime, temporary expedients must be 
resorted to for the purpose of maintaining a channel 
of the required depth. For this purpose powerful 
hydraulic dredges and portable jetties are made use of 

As has already been stated, the obstructions to 
navigation are confined to a few sand bars which 
cause shallow depths during a period of about three 
months of each year. These obstructions are gener- 
ally found between two pools and form the crossing- 
over Avhich steamboats must travel, as they cross 
from a pool lying in a bend along one bank to the 
pool in the bend along the opposite bank. 

The first effect of a' flood, with its increasing- 
velocity, is to erode the bed and banks of the river 
and add this material to the load already carried in 
suspension. This action continues until the crest 
of the flood is reached and the decline sets in. The 
load is now too heavy for the diminishing velocity, 
and the burden is rapidly deposited on the crossings, 
and obstructions are formed which, later, may be- 
come serious hindrances to navigation. 

^^'hbn the river reaches a low stage, these bars 
act as dams to hold the water in the pools. The 
slope on the crossing is thereby increased and like- 
wise the velocity. The crest of the bar consequently 
cuts out, and if this scour is confined to one chan- 
nel, it generally results in a good navigable depth. 
If the bar is wide and flat, there will probably be 
several incipient channels, none of which will answer 
tlie rc(juirements of navigation. These must be con- 
centrated by contraction, or dredging, or both. 

Figure 1 shows rather a complicated bar condition 
-near Point Pleasant, Mo., 80 miles below mouth of 
tlie Ohio. Tlie general course of the viver in this 
section is straight for several miles. Tlie width is 
unusually great, due to the erosion of both banks, 
and the channel is consequently shallow and shifting. 

In the diagram the pools are shown by parallel 
shading, and the figures indicate the depth at low 
water. The upper pool comes down the light bank 



Past— Present— Prospective 



41 



and terminates at A, and the problem tlieu is to 
reach the p<)ol 1$ over the reef or sand bar separating 
the two pools. After crossing the bar, navigation 
to the lower end of the pool at C is easy. Then 
comes another crossing to D, followed by a narrow 
broken pool to I ; another crossing and the fourth 
pool is reached at J. The depth is then ample to 
M, and after crossing another reef to N, this stretch 
of bad navigation is passed. 




channels through the reefs, composed chiefly of 
loose sand lying between successive pools. 

So far the problem seems simple enough, but 
there are other difficulties known only to the engi- 
neer taught by long observation and experience or 
those who have observed the river through many 
years of changes. While the artificial cutting is 
going on, nature may be doing some cutting on hei' 
own account, but, on s\ieh a gigantic scale that the 

MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

VICINITY OF PT. PLEASANT MO. 

79 MILES BELOW OAiRO. 

1897. 



2 30011 

SOUNDINGS ARE REFERRED TO MEAN LOW WATER, 
ON NEW MADRID GAUGE, WHICH CORRESPONDS 
TO A READING OF 2.19 FT. 

GAUGE AT TIME OF SURVEY = 8.0 FT. OR ^.7 FT. 
ABOVE MEAN LOW WATER. 

ZERO CONTOUR CORRESPONDS TO WATER 

SURFACE OF MEAN LOW WATER. 

DEPTHS GREATER THAN 9 FT. ARE SHOWN THUS ^^^ 



FIGURE 1. 



Another route might have been opened from L to 
K and G to H. 

Figure '2 shows a simple crossing, such as is most 
frequently met with. The problem is simply to 
cross one reef lying between the upper and lower 
pools, this short bar being the only obstruction to 
navigation for several miles above and below. 

The problem then resolves itself into opening- 



work of the largest dredges becomes insignificant in 
comparison Avith it. By the time the engineer gets 
•what he considers a dredge of enormous capacity 
into position to open a channel through a bar, the 
natural forces may be diverted toward another 
route, or may throw enormous deiDOsits over the bar 
and obliterate the dredged channel as fast as it can 
be opened. 



42 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 



Tlie enormous volume of material moved along 
the bottom by the current, complicated by subtle 
changes of direction and force of flow which are 
difficult to account for, sometimes defeat the best 
efforts of the engineer. 



This dredge was called the Alpha. It has a 
wooden hull 130 feet long, 36 feet wide and 8 feet 
deep. In working order its draft is about 4 feet. 
The machinery consisted of an Edwards centrifugal 
pump having a curved drag suction at one end, and 



It has been practically demonstrated, however, an AUis-Reynolds screw pump having a straight 

that in spite of all of these difficulties, a channel of suction and jet agitators at the other end, the object 

ample depth can be maintained l)y means of suitable being to make practical tests of the efficiency of the 

hydraulic dredges. different devices. 

The Mississippi River Commission in 1891 began The Edwards pump runner was 6 feet 4 inches 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

CHEROKEE CROSSING 

90 MILES BELOW CAIRO. 

1897. 

SCALE OF FEET 



1000 



3000 



SOUNDINGS ARE REFERRED TO MEAN LOW 
WATER, WHICH CORRESPONDS TO A READING 
OF 2.2 FT. 

■GAUGE AT TIME OF SURVEY —5.8 FT. OR 3.6 FT. 
ABOVE MEAN LOW WATER. 

ZERO CONTOUR CORRESPONDS TO WATER 

SURFACE OF MEAN LOW WATER. 

DEPTHS GREATER THAN 9 FT. ARE SHOWN THUS i 




FIGURE 2. 



investigations to ascertain the best means of securing 
temporary relief for navigation pending the con- 
struction of works looking to the permanent improve- 
ment of the river. 

After a thorough study of the subject, it was de- 
cided that among the many devices designed for 
cutting out sand bars, dredging was the only device 
which held out a reasonable promise of success. 
The construction of an experimental dredge was 
begun in 1893. 



ill diameter, and was operated by a compound, non- 
condensing, vertical engine, with cylinders 15 and 
27 inches in diameter, respectively, and with 20-iDch 
stroke. The suction and discharge pipes were each 
30 inches in diameter. The jet pump had a suction 
and discharge 15 inches in diameter, which supplied 
six 2 J-inch jets under a pressure of about 20 pounds ; 
the object of these jets being to loosen up the sand 
so that it will flow into the pumj). 

The Allis-Reynolds pump was driven by a com- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



43 



pound, non-condensing, vertical engine, with cylin- 
ders 8 and 16 inches in diameter, and 12-inch 
stroke. This pump also had 30-inch suction and 
discharge pipes. 

The steam is supplied by boilers of the ordinary 
Mississippi river type. Hoisting and hauling 
winches are provided for raising and lowering the 
suction and moving the dredge while at work. 

Tl'e material pumped is discharged through a 
line of floating pipe made up in lengths of 33 feet 
and coupled together Avith flexible rubber joints and 
iron coupling bars. The necessary buoyancy is ob- 
tained by an air chanjber on each side of the dis- 



"Wlien one cut is finisiicd tlio cables arc slaekeni'd 
and the dredge drops back to the lower side of the 
bar, the head piles are moved over about the width 
of the cut and another cut is made alongside of the 
first. Tliis process is continued until sufficient 
width and depth have been secured. 

The capacity of tlie Edwards pump with a suction- 
head 8 feet wide, is about 500 cubic yards of sand 
per hour. 

The experiments with this dredge were so satisfac- 
tory that tlie construction of a dredge of much larger 
capacity was decided on. This dredge was completed 
in 1896. It is equipped with two complete pumping 




-•-srft^: ■-•--^-t.^'%(wafeaB^^ii-:-r" 






A STLAM DREDGE AT WORK. 



charge pipe. The pipe can be deflected so as to 
deposit the material on the sides of the channel or 
in deep water below the bar. The length of dis- 
charge pipe is usually 1,000 feet. 

The dredge is moved back and forth along the 
required cut by means of two wire cables leading 
from the drums of the hauling winches to iron hy- 
draulic piles set firmly in the sand at the upper side 
of the bar. 

In dredging, the suction is lowered to the required 
depth and the dredge is hauled ahead at a rate vary- 
ing with depth of material excavated, the speed 
ranging from 60 to 150 feet per hour. 



plants each operated by an engine of 1,250 horse 
power. The barge tests of this dredge showed an 
average capacity of 4,920 cubic yards per hour. In 
its present shape, the suction makes a cut 40 feet 
wide and 4 feet deep at a rate of about 150 feet per 
hour. 

The dredging fleet at the present time consists of 
6 dredges, the towboats and other plant necessary to 
operate them. 

Three side-wheel self-propelling dredges are under 
construction and will be available for the next low- 
water season. 

The later type of dredges have a capacity of 



44 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



about 1,200 cubic yards of sand per hour. The 
suction-head is about 20 feet wide and the suction 
and discharge pipes are 32 inches in diameter. The 
same general jnethod of operating is employed in 
all of them. 

The general type of the dredges now under con- 
struction may be briefly described as follows : 

The hulls are of steel 192 feet long, 44 feet 
molded width, 70 feet wide over guards and 7 feet 
depth of hold. They have cabins 137 feet long and 
34 feet wide, for the accommodation of officers and 
crew. They are fully ec|uipped with cold-storage 
and electric-light plants. 

The propelling machinery is of the ordinary 
Mississippi river side-wheel type built for working 
under a pressure of 170 pounds per sciuare inch. 

The cylinders are 22 inches in diameter and 7 
feet stroke. 

The main dredging pump is a centrifugal double 
suction pump with the discharge at the bottom and 
is placed along center line of boat. The water and 
sand enters the pump from both sides of the casing 
and is discharged through a pipe 32 inches in diam- 
eter. The engines operating the main pump are 
horizontal, tandem, compound, condensing type 
with high-pressure cylinders 16 inches in diameter 
and low-pressure 26 inches in diameter, with 20 
inches stroke. These are designed for a speed of 160 
revolutions per minute. 

The jet pump which supplies the jets that stir up 



the sand is a horizontal, duplex, compound, plunger 
pump. The steam cylinders are 10 and 20 inches 
in diameter and 15-inch stroke. This pump is 
arranged to work at a pressure of about 60 pounds 
])er square inch. 

The hoisting and hauling winches are similar to 
those already described and the methods of opera- 
ling are also essentially the same. 

The dredge is provided with a vertical spud 22 
inches square placed near the bow, by means of 
Avhich the boat can be anchored at any desired point 
on the bar. The spud is easily operated by means 
of a steam cjdinder 18 inches in diameter and 6 feet 
stroke. 

The suction-heads are made in two parts each 
Hi feet wide and Si inches deep at the narrowest 
part. 

These dredges are provided with machine shop 
and tools, sufficient to make all ordinary repairs on 
the spot and also with ample eciuipment of every 
kind that may be required to facilitate the work. 

In the line of temporary relief, pending the pei'- 
manent regularization of the stream, the work done 
for the benefit of navigation thus far has fully 
demonstrated the practicability of economically 
moving immense quantities of material in a short 
space of time with hydraulic dredges. It has also 
demonstrated that good navigable channels can be 
opened and maintained through the obstructing 
sand bars at a reasonable cost. 



LOWER POINT PLEASANT BAR 
79.5 MILES BELOW CAIRO 
SCALE OF FEET 



1000 12 3000 

ALL DEPTHS REFER TO THE LOWEST STAGE OF 1896. 




PT. pleasantV :.f|: »{.',^ 



PT. PLEASANT 




(15)03)aiX9)(T) 



DIAGRAM. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



45 



An adequate plant properly managed should 
readily eliminate all serious hindrances to navigation 
during the low-water season. 

While there is yet much to be learned as to the 
proper location of cuts and conditions of flow and 
scour, it can be said, that so far, the failures have 
been few, while success has been the general rule. 

A good illustration of the effect of dredging is 
shown in the p.ccompanying diagram. The pools 



carrying grain from St. Louis to the seaboard to the 
mutual advantage of both shipper and carrier. 

With a. full complement of dredges readj^ for ser- 
vice, it will be entirely joracticable to maintain a 
good steamboat channel with a least depth at lowest 
stages of eight feet or more. 

The stage from Cairo to the Gulf for two-thirds of 
each year gives a navigable depth of over twelve feet. 

As this channel is verj^ rarel}^ blocked bj^ ice 




-.tr 



m 



HUU=KlJlrj>! 










^>\::i^;.v.^^?RffJv 



A CARGO OF GRAIN BOUND FOR NEW ORLEANS. 



of deep water are shaded and figures show depth at 
low water. In the left diagram, showing conditions 
before dredging, it will be noticed that the depth on 
the reef is only 5 feet. Two days after dredging, 
the dredged cut shows the depths to be from 10 to 
13 feet. Manj^ similar cases could be cited which 
shoM' equally decided results. 

The good work done has already developed in- 
creased activity in the ship-yards and in the construc- 
tion of new craft which are taking the place of the 
obsolete types of boats, which are neither economical 
or efficient for the service now required. Boats with 
steel hulls, modern machinery and boilers are mak- 
ing their appearance and in the near future we will 
doubtless see well equipped fleets of steel barges 



like the Northern water routes via the Great Lakes, 
its immense value to the producers of the vast ter- 
ritory naturally tributary to it must be apparent 
and the interests of these producers and of the entire 
country demands that this channel be maintained 
in the highest degree of efficiency. 

Although the importance of this highway even 
now can hardly be overestimated, still the opening 
of an isthmian canal will add very much to its 
value, as the traffic by water can be extended from 
the heart of the continent to the j^orts of the Pacific 
ocean. 

Thus new fields for our exports will be reached, 
new industries will be developed and the traffic on 
the river will be greatly increased. 



46 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



i 1 



f '?',,■ 






•■— i-^' 



i9^ise ■;'itiifiiei^'^iii 





^^?;^>;'^'.v:^X^S:l::y:^y>:i";:^'^-::^i:<:iSi-Ja^^:^iJS^j?g.- 



LOWER RIVER PACKET LOADED WITH SUGAR. 




PORT EADS AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



47 





48 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI AND ITS REGULATION 



By H. St. L. COPPEE 



T 



one who for the first time sees the lower Mis- 
sissippi river at the spring flood, leaving its 
alluvial bed and expanding its mighty power on 
the adjacent banks and submerged lands, sweep- 
ing through cultivated fields and forests and de- 
stroying everything in its path, the idea of control 
seems futile and absurd. In the mind, at once the 
question rises. How can this great sea of swiftly- 
flowing turbid water, boiling and eddj'ing in great 
mtelstroms of currents, ever be regulated ? How 
can such potential energy ever be so conserved as 
to expend itself in kinetic force against the reacting 
creations of man's genius and be passed harmless and 
pacified to the ocean ? 

To those living before this era of progressive 
thought and inventive effort in every branch of ap- 
plied science and art, the very dream of a jjossibility 
of controlling this mighty river, to the smallest de- 
gree, must have seemed worthy the brain of a poet, 
but surel}' not that of an engineer who knew 
the value in foot-tons of this fluvial giant and 
the opposing forces necessary to chain it to man's 
will. 

Yet, under the domination of mind and will, in 
this golden time of applied science, slowly but surely 
the great problem is being solved, each year mark- 
ing some further progress and greater benefits con- 
ferred by the untiring fight against this common 
enemy. 

In pace with every upward step engineering 
science climbs, oftentimes leading the way. 
Hydraulic engineering is but one branch of general 
engiireering practice ; and to its practitioners has 
devolved the task of accomplishing wliat seemed at 
one time the impossible. 

As far back as we can trace in the dim geological 
past we find the Mississippi river a vast waterway, 
sea or estuary or flowing stream, tlie great central 
arteiy of the North American contiirent, at all 



periods a channel of some sort. During the Cham- 
plain epoch great masses of melting ice furrowed 
their way through its channels that now lie buried 
many hundred feet under the more recent strata of 
marine and fluvial deposits. Later strange fauna 
swam in its turbid waters, and curious trees shaded 
its ever changing banks ; these have been swept 
away in the long ages of pre-historic time, and re- 
placed by the familiar organisms of the present. 

From earliest time this great river has been a 
problem to mankind. The Indians viewed it with 
awe and superstitious wonder. It puzzled and ulti- 
mately checked the uncompromising spirit of the 
bold De Soto and his hardy followers, and his body 
was interred in the depths of its shifting bed. 

To the early Canadian explorers seeking more 
extended dominions for the French throne, it seemed 
to join the very antipodes, as down its swiftly flow- 
ing waters they descended ; hoping for an Eldorado 
that did not exist ; past the muddy river from the 
arid plains in the West, on through the limestone 
causeway of the Ozarks, on through endless days 
and nights of journeying ; by banks wdth noble 
trees — oak, cypress, ash and gum — festooned with 
vines in mighty chains, and pendants of fleecy moss, 
or bars of gravel, sand and mud, fringed with 
fragrant willows ; on to their destination in the 
fever-breeding marshes near the sea ; doomed to 
disappointment, but being the precursors of a civi- 
lization and commercial activity then undreamed 
of, even in tlio centers of culture and wealth of the 
Old World. 

In spite of tlie invasion of civilization, much of the 
lower Mississippi river remains in the same primeval 
grandeur as it did in the time of La Salle. The 
same April sun shines on its eddying surface and 
forest-fringed banks, and the same April air wafts 
the sweet scent of the grape and jessamine over its 
broad bosom, flecked by drifting tree and vine. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



49 



borne by the spring flood to a haven in some shallow 
inlet in the Gulf. 

The Mississippi is always excentric in its flow, not 
behaving like other well-conditioned rivei's, but 
objecting to the supposed laws of hydraulics it 
defies science and human ingenuity and reluctantly 
comes under the influence of well applied engineer- 
ing practice, based on years of experience and hard 
fought battles with its uncompromising opponent. 

Some one has said " The Lord has not flnished 
making the Mississippi valley and it is not His 
intention that it should be inhabited or its river 
controlled." But belt in a geologic or post-geologic 
period, in a state of psychozoic tran.sition or not, man 
and mind have sought its domain and propose to 
train it to their will. Occupying the very heart of 
the country and receiving its waters, tributaries and 
rainsheds, from the topmost ridge of the Alleghanies 
on the East, and the Rocky mountains on the West, 
its importance, from an industrial, commercial, and 
strategic standi^oint, is immense. This was a well- 
recognized fact in colonial times, and in the begin- 
ning of our national history, and continues to be as 
our commercial and moral imjDortance impress 
themselves more powerfully on the markets of the 
world. 

Not many years ago though prosperous cities and 
productive plantations existed on the lower Missis- 
sippi, and intermittent navigation was carried on as 
a means of supply and export, practically nothing 
had been done to develop the vast agricultural do- 
main reaching back many miles from its banks, by 
protecting it from annual inundation from high 
water and providing a means of uninterrupted trans- 
portation at low. 

What has since been done to chain this powerful 
stream that unshackled, like China's great Yellow 
river, has been a sorrow and a terror to the riparian 
owner and navigator; but enslaved and properly 
guided to the sea, will prove an untold blessing to 
the inhabitants of this rich territory. The earlier 
attempts at control and regulation were but tenta- 
tive and local, consisting in the construction of small 
levees for use also as roadways, in detached sections, 
protecting private property, in no way forming a 
continuous system. The first of these was built at 
New Orleans in 1717. It was about 4 feet high, had 
a crown of 18 feet and slopes 2 to 1 back and front. 

These disconnected levees, having their origin 
nearly 200 years ago, have grown through a well- 
defined law of necessity, from the requirements of 



self-protection in the beginning, through the more 
extensively organized efforts of the local communi- 
ties, levee boards, construction companies, etc., into 
the great State and National systems that exist to-day 
and will form a permanent barrier to future floods, 
when completed by the General Government to the 
dimensions dictated by scientific research. While 
the levee system was passing through the many 
stages of evolution, from the small New Orleans sec- 
tion to the finished dike of to-day, the importance 
of the river as a means of transportation for the pro- 
ducts of the protected lands became more and more 
apparent. After many years of controversy as to 
the best means of improvement, and the writing of 
thousands of pages on canalization, regulation, etc., 
followed by active work of construction, a deep 
channel at the mouth of the river was opened to the 
sea. Jetties accompanied by dredging in South pass 
was the method proposed and carried out by Mr. Jas. 
B. Eads, then one of the most eminent engineers in 
America. This work was practically completed in 
1879. Up to that time but little had been done on 
the Mississippi. 

Local levee boards in Mississippi, Louisiana and 
Arkansas were making what progress they could 
with insufficient means and inadequate mechanical 
appliances for construction ; the great majority of 
the levees being erected by shovels and barrows and 
small drag-scrapers. The prices jaaid for work were 
very high, consequently the results were very mea- 
gre. Specific appropriations had been made by the 
General Government for the protection of the banks 
at New Orleans, A^icksburg and Memphis, and work 
to a great extent experimental had been carried on, 
consisting in the revetting of the caving banks by 
means of small detached mattresses, dykes, screens, 
etc. To quote from the author's article in the En- 
giyi^eering Magazine of June, 1896 : 

" The early revetment work, which was purely for 
the protection of property in harbors and not for the 
general improvement of navigation (as, for instance, 
at New Orleans from 1878-1881), consisted of piles 
driven in pairs 6 feet apart along the bank, to which 
were fastened, by big iron rings, light mattresses 2 
inches thick by 25 feet long and 24 feet wide, made 
of fish-pole cane sewed together by weaving double 
wires and afterward yarn under them. These small 
mats were first fastened together, forming sections 
200 by 24 feet, and then sunk with iron weights. 
These mats were of little permanent value. They 
cost from $12.87 to $7.22 per st;iuare (100 sq. ft.). 



50 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



"Another early revetment instanced by the work at 
Delta Point, opposite Vicksburg, consisted of mat- 
tresses built of willow brush and laid in cross-layers 
with top and bottom grillage of poles fastened to- 
gether with hardwood pins and No. 10 wire. These 
mats were constructed on floating ways (a barge 
with inclined skids), and were 50 feet wide, 150 feet 
long and 2 feet thick. When finished they Avere 
launched into the river and sunk with the long axis 
normal to the bank by throwing stone on them from 
small barges. One of these mats could bo made and 
sunk in the same day with the untrained labor then 
employed. Their cost per square was |12, and 
per lineal foot of bank protected, $18. 

"A modification replaced the grillage of poles and 
the connecting pin by a wire netting. This netting 
was formed on a drum attached to the weaving 
barge or ways, and on it was placed the brush, and, 
above the brush, wires which were connected through 
the mat, forming a very compact and strong revet- 
ment, some of which lasts to the present day. 

" The work thus far described is submerged ; it was 
placed in the low water season, and, after being sunk, 
remained constantly under water. 

" It was at first supposed that protection below the 
low-water line would secure the upper portion; but 
it was found that the upper bank quickly washed 
down, and in many places the mats were flanked by 
the current. In order to prevent this destruction 
and make the revetment complete and effective, the 
upper portion of the bank was graded by hand, and 
on the slope was placed a shore mat built of grillage 
and brush, bound by hickory pins and wire, covered 
with rock, and connected at tlie water-line with the 
sub-aqueous work." 

It was not until 1879 that steps were taken 
towards a well-organized project for the general 
improvement of the lower Mississippi river ; the first 
being the creation l)y Congress of the Mississippi 
River Commission and its appointment by the 
President of the United States. Its personnel was 
most excellent, the members being of pronounced 
eminence as military and civil engineers and 
statesmen. The duty of the Commission was to have 
surveys made of the river and obtain data of its 
physical properties and phenomena on which to base 
a plan for the work of improvement ; to formulate 
such a plan or project and to carry it out in accord- 
ance with the provisions made by the Government. 

The task was a great one and the men to whom it 
was intrusted were equal to it. Though many 



changes have been made in the details of the work 
and greater weight given to certain features that in 
their incipiency were not considered important, the 
general plan laid down in the beginning is being in 
great part carried out in spite of the uncertainty of 
our method of obtaining appropriations and the 
enormous and varied forces and quantities involved 
in the problem. The Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, 
the Volga, and many well-known American rivers 
on which regulation and general improvement has 
been applied, are of much smaller dimensions and 
volume of discharge, therefore they were but poor 
criterion s to follow. The processes and apparatus 
adopted for obtaining the physical data are well 
known by engineers. Velocity and discharge obser- 
vations were made at first by floats and rods and 
afterward by current and direction meters. Depths 
were found witli the lead and graduated line, etc. 

The phenomena observed and the laws or sup- 
posed laws deduced, which indicate the underlying 
principle that has to be subserved in the plans for 
improvement, have been profoundly studied by the 
engineers employed on the river, and numerous 
monographs have been written that are of untold 
value and importance to engineering literature. * 

To cjuote again from the Engineering Magazine, 
-fune, 1896 : " The Mississippi in its lower reaches, 
from Cairo to the Gulf, is purelj' an alluvial stream, 
flowing through a low-lying land subject to over- 
flow. Its high-water season may be approximately 
stated as continuous from Februarjr to May inclu- 
sive, and the low-water season from September to 
December, the other months of the year marking 
the transition periods. Its numerous bends have 
no uniformity of radius or depth, each with its ac- 
companying bar on the convex shore, terminating 
in a shoal or crossing where the curve is reversed 
and the water cuts through the continuous chain of 
sand. 

"The banks are formed of strata of .sand, buckshot, 
and clay, of varying thickness. During the high 
stages the water scours the bank on the concave side 
in the bends, depositing the material thus obtained 
on the bar. At low water the reverse is the case to 
a great extent ; the bar is scoured, and the caving 
in the bend is materially reduced. 

"In accordance with the law of transportation of 
material in mechanical suspension in alluvial 

* Pipers by Colonels Oomstock and Suter and Majors 
Starling, Ockerson, Seddon and others, in reports of the 
Commission and Transaction of the American Society of Civil 
Engineeia. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



51 



streams, as the M'ater leaves the bend and crosses to 
the other side with its load of sediment, the heavy 
grains of sand drojj to the bottom and are rolled 
along in well defined waves, with long up-stream 
and steep down-stream slopes, the lightest material 




BANK BEFORE CAVING. 

floating until tlie velocity is reduced and flow is 
more uniform, i. e. — freer from upward currents and 
boils, which support the material in suspension — 
when it is also deposited, the more finely com- 
minuted particles being carried out to sea, where 
freedom from currents and salt water hasten its pre- 
cipitation. 

" There are, generally speaking, two methods for 
the improvement of alluvial streams — canalization 
and regulation. 

" The former, owing to the greater cost and diffi- 
culty of obtaining permanent foundations for locks 
and dams, is rarely resorted to, though in latter 
years the use of concrete has enlarged its field of 
possibilities where formerly deemed impracticable. 

" Regulation includes two distinctive features in 
streams subject to overflow, governed by the high 
and low-water regimen. ' They are : the improve- 
ment of the high-water channel, and the imjjrove- 
ment of the low or medium stage channel. The 
former consists in the construction of levees and high- 
water cross-dikes ; and the latter in revetment and 
spurs for bank jDrotection, permeable dams and 
training walls, sills (grund-schwellen),* and dredg- 

"^g- 

* Also called by the French Epis Noyes. 



" In some foreign rivers portable jetties have been 
used, but not on any extensive scale.* 

" These different methods have been differently 
employed on many rivers throughout the world, 
with a varied measure of success, their application 
being accompanied in different localities by modifi- 
cation in detail of structure, governed hj the material 
at hand and the judgment of the designing engineer. 

" The great discharge of the lower Mississippi river, 
the excessive oscillation of its water surface from 
high to low gauge, the vast destructive energy stored 
and expended in its flow, and the crumbling or fin- 
able nature of its banks, makes the problem of its 
regulation or improvement, both for the protection 
of property and benefit of navigation, a very diffi- 
cult one to solve." 

The original plan of improvement adopted by the 
Mississippi River Commission was as follows : 

First, to control the floods or high water by levees. 

Second, to contract to a normal width the wide 
reaches by permeable and impermeable dikes. 

Third, to protect the banks from caving by revet- 
ments. 

This plan has been changed as follows ; 

First, the use of contraction works has been aban- 




SAME BANK CAVING. 



Few dike or training 



doned to a great extent, 
walls are now constructed. 

Second, the general improvement of the rivei- by 
bank protection, revetments, spurs, etc., has been 

•■ See Prof. J. Schlichting " Navigable Non-tidal Rivers." 
( Morath's movable floating spur, used in Germany.) 



52 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



postponed until some less expensive structures are 
designed or discovered. 

Third. The existing revetments are being re- 
paired and new ones placed in localities where cut- 
offs and out-lets threaten the stability of regimen, 
or harbor lines and valuable city property are being 
encroached on by the caving banks. 

Fourth. The low-water channels over the cross- 
ings are being maintained by dredging during tlie 
low-water season. 

The lower Mississippi gets its water principally 
from two great drainage basins or watersheds, the 
Ohio and the upper Mississippi and Missouri. The 
former is about 200,000 and the latter over 700,000 
square miles in extent, and though the latter is over 
three times greater its average annual discharge is 
but one-half that of the former. In the lower 
reaches the flow is augmented by the discharge of 
the St. Francis, the Arkansas and White, the Yazoo 
and the Red rivers ; the Arkansas, White and 
E.ed adding at flood stage over 750,000 cubic feet 
per second. The St. Francis and Yazoo are of little 
consequence, except in that their basins act as relief 
areas or reservoirs during high stages of the river. 
The di'ainage basin of the Arkansas and White is 
about 200,000 square miles, nearly as large as the 
Ohio, and that of the Red river 99,000 square 
miles. 

The rains that produce our greater floods are pre- 
cipitated on the slopes of the Ozark mountains and 
the watershed supplying the Ohio, Cumberland and 
Tennessee rivers. The destructive storms that pass 
up from the Gulf of Mexico, commencing in Febru- 
ary, deposit part of their burden of moisture on the 
hills and valleys tributary to the Arkansas and 
White and in the main trunk basins of the lower 
river. Continuing up through the Ohio valle}' to 
the topmost ridges of the Appalachian chain, they 
pour down floods of water that in great part reach 
the alluvial river, causing destructive overflows. As 
a rule, the high water from the Missouri and upper 
Mississippi does not come until late in the season, 
when the spring flood has jjassed from the Ohio 
valley and the lower Mississippi is in condition to 
receive the discharge. 

The lateness and the lack of importance of these 
latter floods is due to the fact that the drainage 
basins of the upper Mississippi and Missouri are in 
an arid region of little rain-fall, and that they are 
geographically situated in such northern degrees of 
latitude as to keep their waters practically frozen 
until late in the spring. 



At first, owing to the narrow interpretation of the 
law governing the application of the funds appro- 
priated, levee construction was not given a very 
important place in the general work of improve- 
ment. Later it has become the most important 
feature, not only as a means of channel regulation 
but as a protection to the alluvial lands and the 
people living thereon. 

For convenience of administration the Mississippi 
River Commission divided the portion of the allu- 
vial basin from Cairo to the Gulf into four districts, 
each of which is placed under the supervision of an 
officer of the United States Engineer Corps. These 
districts include the levees built by the local, state 
and county boards, which are to a great extent, 
maintained by the Government. 

The first and second districts, extending from 
Cairo to the mouth of the White river, have been 
consolidated and are under one officer. 

The third district reaches from White river to 
Warrenton, just below Vicksburg, and the fourth 
thence to the head of the passes. 

The climate varies but slightly in this entire reach 
of river, the winter in the upper districts being more 
severe and extended, but the other seasons partaking 
of practically the same changes. The high-water 
conditions are much the same, varying in average 
height of overflow and time of maximum gauge 
reading. The topography is similar : a flat alluvial 
plain intersected by numerous bayous and lakes, old 
river arms, etc., having slopes gently declining from 
the river and in the direction of its flow. 

The materials composing the banks, on which the 
revetments are placed, and the foundations on which 
the levees stand, and the material of which they are 
constructed are of the same geological epoch, and, 
generally speaking, were formed by the same agen- 
cies throughout. In the lower district the alluvium 
is more compact and tenacious, and resists caving 
better than in the districts above. 

Since 1882 approximately 80,000,000 cubic yards, 
have been placed in the levees by the Government. 
The form of these levees has varied with local con- 
ditions, but since 1887 the general specifications 
have not been radically changed. 

A few years ago the Government adopted standard 
sections which have since been adhered to, except in 
cases where the conditions demanded more specific 
treatment. The first, second and third districts have 
practically the same standard for all levees on all 
ordinarily good foundations, and when constructed 
of material not below the average in strength. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



53 



The standard dimensions are : Crown, 8 feet ; 
front or river slope, 3 to 1 ; back slope, 3 to 1. 
Where the levee is over 11 feet in height, a ban- 
quette, at an elevation of 8 feet below the top of the 
main levee, is added. The slope of the crown of this 
banquette is 10 to 1, width of crown 20 feet, and 
back slope 4 to 1. Where the foundation is bad or 
the material is weak, the banquette section and per- 
haps the front slope of the main levee is increased. 




Fig. 1. 

The dotted lines in Fig. 1 show the shrinkage sec- 
tion to which levees are built. The specifications 
require the levee to be constructed in 2-ft. layers 
Avith scrapers, on a well grubbed and thoroughly- 
plowed foundation containing a small exploration 
muck-ditch filled back with strong material, the best 
to be found in the vicinity, and sodded at 2-ft. inter- 
vals with Bermuda grass. 

In the fourth district the dimensions vary with 
the height, and are intended to conform more nearly 
to the supposed theoretically perfect section. These 
variations may be further modified as in the other 
districts when required by abnormal condition of the 
foundation, material of construction, Avave Avash, etc. 

For levees from 10 to 15 feet in height the crown 
is S feet, the river slope is 3 to 1, and the land 



For Average Net Heights of s'and-Less. 




STANDARD LEVEE SECTION. 

slojje 4 to 1 to Avithin 5 feet of the crown ; thence to 
the crown it is 2.5 to 1. 

For leA'ees from 15 to 20 feet in height the croAvn is 
8 feet, the river slope is 3 to'l, the first 8 feet of the 
land slope from the ground is 6 to 1, the next 6 feet 4 
to 1, and thence to the crown 2,5 to 1. 

Fig. 2 shows these sections and the method of 
placing allowances for shrinkage. 

In the upper districts lOfo of the height, both in 
wheelbarrow and team work, is required for 
shrinkage. 

These standard sections are expected to withstand 
the Avater to Avithin 3 feet of the crown of the levee, 

For Average Net Heights from 5 -to 10. 



.jy^y^fHag;; 




O TILE DRAIN 






i Tl 



FOURTH DISTRICT 
LEVEE SECTIONS. 

SCALE Cr PEGT 

5 10 20 

NET SECTION 

CROSS SECTION WHEEL QARROW WORK 
" " TEAMWORK 




For Average Net Heights from to'to 15'. 




O TILE DRAIN 



SS:^3I5^^2SS:S^^^SSS!S^^^^^^^SS^^^s^^^^^^^^^S!55^ss5!!!!!!!Sa 






Fio. 2. 



54 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



without excessive saturation or change of form, and 
to give unqualified protection under all normal con- 
ditions of foundations and materials of construction. 

When subjected to water above the 3-ft. line, 
though they are intended to remain intact they can- 
not be considered, either theoretically or practically, 
standards of excellence. 

In June, 1898, the writer j)ublislied a paper in the 
Transaction of the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, entitled "Standard Levee Section," in 
Avhich the sections of foreign levees are compared 
with those adopted in this country. It is interesting 
to note that the experience on the Mississippi river 
is parallel to a great extent with that in Holland. 
Eliminating the portion of the levee used as a road- 
way, we have a theoretical section very similar on 
both sides of the ocean. 



known flood. It was in the neighborhood of 2,000,- 
000 cubic feet per second. 

Since 1882 with the growth of the levee system 
with Government assistance, and the gradual elimi- 
nation of reservoirs, and contraction of high-water 
sections, the flood plane had risen, each high 
water for a given volume of discharge giving gi-eater 
gauge readings. In 1897 when tlie volume of dis- 
charge approached ver}' nearly to that of 1882, the 
water climbed above the crown of the levee and con- 
tinued to rise against the temporary topping, that 
A\as hastily placed in the emei'gency of the moment, 
until it overcame at many points this feeble resist- 
ance, and relieved itself in the great basins to 
east and west. The following table gives the differ- 
ence in elevation on the gauges, of the floods of 1882 
and 1897 : 




1882. 



1897. 



7.2 



Cairo 51. 

Belmont I 45. 

New Madrid 40. 

Cottonwood Point 37. 

Fulton 36. 

Memphis 35. 

Mhoons 39. 

Helena ( 4' 

Sunflower i 41. 

White River -. ' 48. 

Arkansas City ' 47. 

Greenville i 41. 

Lake Providence i 38. 

Vicksburg ' 48. 

St. Joseph 44. 

Natchez 47. 

Red River 48. 

Bayou Sara 39. 

Baton Rouge 36. 

Plaquemine 31. 

College Point 23. 

Garrollton 15. 



51.6—0.3 
45. 1 0.0 
40.3—0.6 
39.3+1.8 
37.5+0.8 
37.7+2.5 
41.6+2.8 
51. 8+4. 6 
47.3+5.6 
52. 4+4. 
51.9+4.8 
46. 8+5. 1 
44.4+6.1 
52. 4+3. 6 
47.9+3.0 
49.8+2.0 
50.2+1.7 
43.8+4.5 
40.7+4.7 
36.3+5.0 
28.0+4.8 
19.0+4.0 



LEVEE UNDER CONSTRUCTION. 

In both continents the same problem was worked 
out with very much the same means, and to the 
same results. Abroad, more time and money are 
expended on revetments to protect the exposed 
slope of the levee than in this country, but not until 
the required grades and sufficient material have been 
obtained here will the question of levee revetments 
become vital, except as very unusual departures 
from the genei'ul jDractice. 

During the flood of 1882 and those prior to that 
year the levees were verj^ weak and imperfect, offer- 
ing but feeble resistance to overflow. In 1882 the 
discharge was probably as great as that of any 



With the experience derived from the latter flood 
estimates have Ijeeu made, based on scientific 
research, and the general consensus of engineering 
opinion is that a levee grade about 6 feet above. the 
high water of 1897 will be safe against any flood 
that it may be necessary to contend with. 

The levees of the lower Mississippi are about 1,800 
miles in length ; a few gaps remain to be filled 
before the system is continuous, except where the 
liills aiDproach the river and at the mouths of tribu- 
taries, where leveeing is impossible: Fig. 3 
shows the position and area of the basins protected, 
and the following table gives the districts, their 
length, and the amount of cubic yards of material 
in the levees April, 1898 : 



Past— Present— Prospective 



55 



Districts. 



Lower St. Francis 

Upper Yazoo 

AVhite River 

1st and 2nd Districts 

Lower Yazoo 

Upper Tensas . 

3d District 

Lower Tensas 

Atciiafalaya 

Lafourche 

Barataria 

Homochitto 

Pontcliartrain 

Lake Borgne 

4th District 

Grand TotaL.. 



Eiver 
length to 
be pro- 
tected. 



Miles. 
218 
121 
80 

419 



230 
205 



435 



160 

122 

• 71 

92 

238 

116 

82 



Yardage 
April 30, 1898. 



Total existing 
Levees. 



Cuhic Yards. 
7, 039, 424 
14,682,166 
6, 356, 364 



28, 077, 954 



26, 256, 857 
24,042,150 



50, 299, 007 



881 



14, 417, 288 

15, 448, 446 

6, 945, 622 

2, 379, 813 

11, 982, 558 
2, 635, 932 



53, 809, 659 



1, 735 132, 186, 620 



Since April, 1898, about 5,000,000 cubic .yard.s 
have been added, making a grand total of about 
137,000,000 cubic yards in all the levees on the 
alluvial river. 

In order to complete the .system to the ultimate 
grade averaging about 6 feet above the high water 
of 1897, the Mississippi River Commission asks for 
$20,000,000 to be appropriated by the Government. 

In the work of the Mississippi River Commission 
after 1882, the duty of revetments was materially 
extended. 

Instead of protecting harbor fronts in limited 
spaces, they were employed to retain the bank in 





FIG. 3. 



BALLASTING MATTRESS, 



lone and difficult reaches. To meet these new con- 
ditions an entire change in construction was neces- 
sary. 

The woven mat was adopted and continued to be 
the standard for many years, and many localities 
were permanently and successfully protected by it. 

It was constructed by first building on floating 
ways a rigid head of poles, to which weaving poles 
were fastened at right angles. On these weaving 
poles, extending to the full length of the mat. was 
woven willow brush. A grillage of poles was fas- 
tened to the top, and, after being secured to the 
bank and mooring barge, the mat, -400 feet long by 
150 feet wide, was sunk by means of rock thrown 
from barges. 



56 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 




SINKING MATTRESS. 

After sinking tlie mat tlie npper portion of the 
l)ank was graded to a slope (3 horizontal, 1 vertical) 
by the hydraulic method. The grader consisted of a 
large duplex compound pump with a capacity of 2,000 
gallons per minute, giving a water pressure of 160 
l^ounds, with a steam pressure of 80 pounds jier sc|uare 
inch and a vacuum of 26| inches. It rested on a 
house barge. The hose from the pump terminated 
in a 1^-inch nozzle, from which the water was di- 
rected against the bank, reducing it to the required 
grade. The excavation of 1 cubic yard of earth 
took a fraction less than 1 cubic yard of water, and 
used three pounds of coal. 

Owing to the heterogeneous consistency of the 
bank, the slope, as left by the hydraulic grader, was 
often very un.satisfactory and rough. 

This had to be remedied by hand, sluice, and 
scraper dressing, before revetting. The height of 
bank graded averaged about 30 feet, and the 
material excavated per hundred feet about 3,500 
cubic yards, costing about 4 cents per cubic yard for 
removal. 

When the bank was dressed a revetment of two 
layers of brush with polo grillage above and below, 
fastened with wire and spikes, was placed thereon 
and well covered with stone. 

This type of bank protection with numerous modifi- 
cations has been used up to within a iew years, and 
has proved in many places very successful. The size 
of the mattress was considerably increased, being as 
much as 2,000 feet long and 300 feet wide. The 
thickness was also increased by overweaviug and 
cross-weaving and the additions of loose brush under 
top grillage. Greater strength was obtained by the 
introduction of iron rods, longitudinal and trans- 
verse cables, and hard-wood heads. In the early 



and insufficient work the cost per lineal foot of bank 
protection was $14 ; the later standard woven mats, 
300 feet wide, with paved bank, cost $30.' 

Notwithstanding the fact that additional strength 
and thickness had been given the woven mat, it was 
found that tlie water would scour the bank through 
the spaces between, the willows, and, owing to its 
stiffness, the mat was often damaged at the outer 
edge where the action of' the current was violent. 
To prevent this, and to obtain a structure both 
stronger and more pliable, the fascine form Avas 
tried, and proved so superior to the old mat that it 
has been adopted as the standard, and bids fair to 
solve the problem of permanent protection at all 
points and in all materials. 

The fascine mat is made with about the same di- 
mensions as the large woven mats, 300 feet by 1,000 
feet. It is constructed in the following manner : 

First, a large head of hard-wood poles, 3 feet in 
diameter, is formed on the ways normal to the bank. 
To this head is fastened, at intervals of 8 feet, a 
I'inch wire cable and a J-inch wire strand. Fas- 
cines about 11 inches in diameter made of bundles 
of willows are then placed parallel to and against 
the head, being forced well up to it and held in 
place by a turn of the wire strand and a clamp on 
the under cable. When 10 feet (in length of the 
mat) of the fascines have been placed, a second 
hard-wood head is constructed, taking the place of 
a fascine, and clamped in the same- manner. These 
two heads form the head of the mattress, to which 




HYDRAULIC BANK GRADING. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



57 




BUILDING FASCINE MATTRESS. 

the mooring and shackle lines are attached, as well 
as the cables of wire strand. After the head is 
formed Ihe fascines are made and clamped into po- 
sition so tightly that no spaces are left ; indeed, the 
work is so compact that it will gradually sink from 
accumulation of silt. Transverse cables are also 
used, strengthening the mat and connecting it at 
intervals with the bank. On the top of the mat- 
tress are placed longitudinal poles fastened every 5 
feet to the fascines with No. 7 Silicon bronze wire. 
After completion the mattress is first ballasted by 
loading it with rock, carried in wheelbarrows, until 
its flotation is nearly destroyed; tlien it is sunk in 
the usual manner, by floating barges over it and 
throwing rock on it, in large cjuantities, b}' hand. 

In the later work the upper bank is graded to a 
slope of 4 to 1, and on it is placed a pavement of 
rock and spalls carefully laid, instead of the willow 
shore mat, which is destroyed by natural decay in 
about three years. 

There is a marked difference in the kinds of re- 
vetment that have proved successful in the river 
above the mouth of Red river and below, due to the 
fact that, below the slope and width are less and the 
average depth greater. No obstructive bars or cross- 
ings occur, the caving is comparatively slight, and 
the range from high to low water at New Orleans 
is but one third that at the mouth of the Arkansas. 
The velocity of the current at low water is very 
slight, and the radii of bends much greater as a rule. 



Interrupted revetment and dikes can be used in the 
lower river with much better results, and much 
weaker and lighter structures can be made effective. 

It is in the vicinity of New Orleans that the first 
submerged crib dikes were placed as a protection to 
the city front. They were located at intervals of 
about 500 feet, being placed on foundation mat- 
tresses at first woven, afterwards of the pin and frame 
type. The foundation mattress was generally about 
350 feet by 200 feet, with long axis normal to the 
bank, sunk between mooring barges with rock. 

The number of cribs composing the body of the 
dike varied with the depth of the water and the 
conformation of the sub-aqueous slopes. 

The cribs were made of sawed timber frames, con- 
nected by long iron bolts and wooden posts fastened 
with wooden pins, between Avhich and forming the 
body of the crib was placed willow brush, pockets 
being left in the construction in which to place the 
rock for sinking. The mattress required about 7 
pounds of rock to each square foot of surface, the 
cribs about 7 pounds for each cubic foot of structure. 

The cost averaged about $7.60 per square foot for 
mattress, and 3|- cents for crib per cubic foot. In the 
upper river the crib work is carried to the top of the 
bank b}' framed structures similar to the submerged 
portion ; in the lower river by an earthen levee paved 
with rock. 

Chief among the difficulties to be contended with 
m the work are the drift and snags. As the bank 




FASCINE MATTRESS COMPLETED. 



58 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 




PAVED BANK. 

caves, in the wooded reaches, it carries into the 
water large trees that for a long time remain upright 
in the river, forming snags over Avhich it is impossi- 
ble to sink mattresses. These are removed by pow- 
erful snag boats and explosives manipulated by 
divers. 

When a partially constructed mattress, say 300 
feet wide and 800 feet long, is in the water at the 
time of a rapid rise, much drift will accumulate at 
the upper side of the mooring barges, necessitating 
the use of great numbers of mooring cables. Some- 
times the pressure becomes so excessive that it is im- 
possible to contend with it, and the mattress is toi'n 
from its moorings. The pressure in a current 8 feet 
per second against a mat head extending 300 feet out 
in the river with drift lodged under it to a dejath of 
15 feet is ver}' difficult to counteract. 

In the foregoing description of bank protection, 
two distinctive types of construction have been 
noted, continuous revetment and submerged spurs. 
The former otfei's little resistance to the How of 
water, but the latter causes reverse flow and the 
checking of the current, thus producing a deposit in 
the unprotected intervals, when effectual. In bends 
of great radius, light currents, and strong bank 
material, the .spurs have proven very beneficial and 
permanent, placed at intervals of about 500 feet ; 
but in abrupt bends in light soils, even at reduced 
distances, they are unsatisfactory. Unlike the con- 
tinuous revetment they obstruct the inshore channel, 
oH'ering resistance to iiow and changing the mechani- 
cal forces of the river from potential to active work 
which, if strong enough, means destruction of tlio 
struftu]'e or tlio bank l>encatii it. In some localities 



in the upper river they have been destroyed, or have 
sunk into pockets formed by the current, and the 
unprotected spaces have been attacked, necessitating 
the application of continuous revetment. 

The following table gives the materials used and 
the cost of dikes and standard revetments, used up 
to 1897 below Cairo. Since 1897 there has been 
practically no change in form and but slight reduc- 
tion in cost. 

MATERIALS. 



Kind ok Protection. 


n 




2 6 
coo 








i 




2.02.'; 
4.48 

0.14 


0.41 
0.17 

21 


614 

7.76 

Tons 

0.55 


22.97 
11.50 

012 


13 6 
36.04 

0.007 


"T.i 


J29.07 




30.04 




S%c 







*Mat. 250 ft. wide stone pavement. 
tMat. 3uO ft. wide stone pavement. 
;tCost includes labor. 

The early mats cost per square $12. 00 approximately. 

The standard woven mats per square 4.50 " 

The frame mats, New Orleans, per square, fl. 00 " 
The fascine " " " " " ... 0. 00 

Brush shore revetment,]Srew Orleans,perEq.6 00 " 

Pavement per square 10.00 " 

Cribworkofdikespercu.fr 04 " 

Grading with hydraulic grade per cu. 3'd... .04 " 




DRIFT AT HEAD OF MATTRESS. 

To build and sink a fascine mattress 300 feet wide 
requires from 250 to 300 men, and the average 
progress per day is about 150 lineal feet. Of the 
finished cost, about 45 per cent, represents labor and 
55 per cent, material. 

It must be liorne in mind that the structures 
described may be similar to some extent in form and 
construction to those employed on other rivers, but 
tlieir diinensions and the conditions under which 



Past— Present— Prospective 



59 



they are placed are vastly dissimilar. No revetment 
work in the world approaches the magnitude of tliat 
accomplished on the Mississippi, in the way of bank 
protection. Here mattresses with superficial areas 
of seven and eight acres are sunk to the bottom of 
the river in depths of 80 and 100 feet, in currents of 
from 5 to 8 feet per second ; and dikes 430 feet 
long by 60 feet high, each containing 80,000 ft. of 
lumber, 2,000 tons of rock and nearl}' ten tons of 
iron (iron rods and nails) are similarly placed in 150 
feet of water. 

The work of the ^lississippi River Commission 
thus far accomplished has demonstrated the feasi- 
bility of ultimately controlling this mighty river and 
training it between permanent banks, without either 
raising its bed or destroying the great agricultural 
domain adjacent thereto, but this result can be 







CONSTRUCTING SUBMERGED SPUR. 

obtained only by the expenditure of a large sum of 
money. 

It is now conceded b}^ many engineers familiar 
with the problem that, in order to obtain the best 
results, the permanent woi'k should commence at 
the head of the alluvial river and be extended down 
stream from year to year until the entire channel 
has been regulated, local works, which would ulti- 
mately form a part of the continuous system, being 
carried on for special purposes from time to time. 

By a system of bank revetment or other protection 
commencing at the head of the alluvial basin is not 
meant a continuous revetment irrespective of general 
physical or topographical features ; these, of course, 
will be potent factors in the problem, and will have 
to conform to certain limits, the river being allowed 
to cave at certain points until given degrees of cur- 



vature, slope, etc., obtain, and the effort being to ob- 
tain as great a length of river and as light a slope 
as possible, so that when the bar building ceases, the 
conditions of de[)th and flow will conform more 
nearly to those existing below the mouth of the Red, 
Avhere navigation is safe and permanent. 

In order, therefore, to improve the river as a 
whole from Cairo to New Orleans, some caving 
bends would be passed by (though the general plan 
would be to protect each), and many isolated reaches 
would be revetted, irrespective of the continuous 
work. 

In the present river from Cairo to the mouth of 
the Red, there are * 406 miles of caving bends. By 
making allowance for additional caving produced 
by new Avork, and eliminating the banks where pro- 
tection may be unnecessary, the distance will not 
be materially changed. 

The cost, at the present rate, for the most effective 
means of protection — $160,000 i^er mile — would be, 
roughly estimated, $67,000,00*0. Adding 10 per 
cent, for repairs and plant, the total cost of perma- 
nent bank protection becomes $73,700,000. 

In addition to the jsermanent work, the proposed 

dredging would cost, in twenty years, in accordance 

with Col. Henry Flad's estimate for a channel of 

250 feet wide and 9 feet deep at low water from 

Cairo to Natchez, as follows : 

For plant SI, 18S, 000 

Dredging t>, 996, 000 



Total §8,184,000 

Adding to the amount necessary to protect the 
levee system $20,000,000, we have the following ap- 
proximate total for completing the improvement 
from Cairo to the Jetties : 

Permanent channel improvement $73, 700, 000 

Levees 20,000,000 

Dredging ; , 8,184,000 

Total 1101,884,000 

When the Mississippi River Commission decided 
to employ dredges to improve low-water navigation 
the first problem to be solved was that of the best 
form of dredge for the si^ecial duty of taking the 
sand from the crossings and moving it beyond the 
new channel quickly and economically. The 
dredges in use throughout the world were : 

Scraper and sluicing dredges (including hydraulic 
and pneumatic sluices), dipper or scoop dredges, 
clamshell or grab dredges, bucket ladder or endless 
chain dredges, hydraulic dredges. 

*See report of the Mississippi River Commission for J 896, 
page 345S. 



60 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



Each of these types has numerous modifications 
to suit tlie special conditions and purposes for wliich 
it is designed, differing in form of rake, jet, buclcct, 
grab, hopper, macliinery, hull, etc. In some there 
is a combination of two types, while in others the 
variation from the parent form is marked, as in the 
pulsometer, pneumatic scraper, etc. 

The difficulty of applying economically the above- 
mentioned dredges on the bars of the Mississippi 
lies not so much in their inadequate excavating 
power as in the means of conveying the dredged 
material the necessary distance from the dredged 
channel. The real problem to be solved, therefore, 
is not alone that of excavation, but that of convey- 
ing dredgings in this wide river subject to so nu- 
merous varying currents and strong winds. That 
the last and more modern ~typ6 of dredge is better 
fitted for this work is self-evident. The reduction 
in lift and economy in operation on a large scale 
cannot be doubted. Its double function of convey- 
ing as well as excavating fits it especially to this 
particular project. 

The simplest form of the pump or hydraulic 
dredge is shown in Fig. 4. 




Fig. 4. 



Here we have a small centrifugal pump run by 
a belt from a small engine, a suction pipe of iron 
and rubber, and the discharge. When the pump is 
in action the water and sand are drawn from the 
bottom, pass through the pump, and are forced 
through the discharge opening to a distance gov- 
erned by the length of pipe, power of engine, capac- 
ity of pump, height of dumping ground, etc. The 
centrifugal pump differs from the ordinary recipro- 
cating pump in that it is valveless and can take up 
and discharge large quantities of water containing 
large percentages of foreign matter without detri- 
ment to its parts. It consists of an iron shell or box, 
through which a shaft works ; on this shaft and in 
the shell is a runner with blades, fixed or adjusta- 
ble, forming a species of fan. On the shaft outside 
the shell is a pinion or gear, by which connection is 



made with the engine. The water and material is 
taken into the pump at base or center of the fan 
wheel, and discharged at right angles to the suction 
and at the outer edges of the blades. 

These pumps are made of various patterns, sizes 
and capacities. One lately designed for the partial 
drainage of New Orleans is nearly 12 feet in diame- 
ter and has a caj)acity of 1,900 cubic feet per minute. 

It is claimed that Bamath, Hoffman & Schwartz- 
kopf, a German firm, first patented the hydraulic 
dredge in 1856. Mr. Bowers, of California dredging 
fame, was also a pioneer in hydraulic dredging, but 
probably the first application of the pump for trans- 
porting dredged material was as late as 1867, on the 
Grand canal at Amsterdam, the capacity of the 
pump being 1,330 yards per 12 hours, conveyed 900 
feet and lifted 5 feet. 

In 1872 General Gilmore, of the United States 
Engineer Corps, operated a crude suction dredge at 
the mouth of the St. John river, Florida, which 
moved 78 cubic yards jjer hour at a cost of about 31 
cents per yard. In 1877 Captain Eads designed a 
h5'draulic dredge which worked at the mouth of the 
Mississippi. The Van Schmidt dredge of 1883 was 
the first complete hydraulic machine of large ca- 
pacity and delivering design used in this country, 
and is a good illustration of the truth that " neces- 
sity is the mother of invention." 

From these beginnings in the near past have been 
evolved the great hydraulic dredges, too numerous 
to mention, that have developed enormous capacity 
for excavation and deliver}' of material (in sea, river 
and canal), of various forms, from the stationary 
pulsometer used on the Potomac flats to the sea- 
going hopper dredge with mammoth rotary pumps, 
each varying in general design and detail with the 
conditions under which they operate. 

To move vast quantities of sand in a short time 
and deliver it from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the 
channel required a new departure. In 1894 and 
1895 a dredge was constructed by the commission 
which, though a success, Avas but a step to the great 
hydraulic machine which followed the next year, 
and with its consort kept the river open to naviga- 
tion during the low-water season of 1 896. The first 
dredge was named the Alpha. It was designed 
after careful experiment and investigation had dem- 
onstrated the pro]3er dimensions, power and capacity 
for its machinery and frame, and has proved a suc- 
cess, though of much less capacity than the later 
dredge. Beta, which is probably the largest and 
most complete hydraulic excavator in the world 



Past— Present— Prospective 



61 



to-day. The dredge Gamma at work is shown on 
this page. Tlie plant accompanj'ing this dredge 
consists of one large steam tow-boat, one pile-driver 
and three barges. 




DREDGE GAMMA. 



The report of her operations during tlio season of 
1896 gives the cost of material (sand and gravel) 
moved as 4.3 cents to 12.1 cents per yard, the latter 
due to break down in runner of main pump. 

At one crossing. Compromise Bar, 77 miles below 
Cairo, the work consisted of 7 cuts, aggregating 
5,405 lineal feet, the dredging time being 257-| hours, 
and the average rate 21 lineal feet per hour. The 
amount of material moved was 80,555 cubic yards= 
312i cubic yards per hour. The cost was $3,- 
473.68 ; average cost per cubic yard 4.3 cents (sand 
and gravel). 

The Beta, though similar in general conception to 
other h3'draulic dredges of the day, differs much in 
size and dttail. Strictly speaking, it consists of two 
separate dredges on one Imll, each with cutters and 
suction openings leading to a separate suction, large 
centrifugal pump, and discharge. The hull is of 
steel, 172 feet long, 40 feet broad, and from 7 feet 
2 inches, to 10 feet 10 inches in depth. About 
midship of the hull are located two centrifugal 
pumps, one on each side, each, as stated, acting as a 



separate and complete hydraulic dredger. Each 
pump has a runner 7 feet in diameter and shaft 10 
inches in diameter, with discharge 33 inches and 
suction 33f inches in diameter, actuated by separate, 
triple-expansion engines with high-pressure cylin- 
ders 20J inches, intermediate 33 inches, and low- 
pressure 38 inches in diameter, with 24-inch stroke. 
Each engine has jet condensers. Steam is ob- 
tained from four 375-horse-power Heine boilers, 
placed as shown in the drawing. 

The six suctions, three to each main suction pij^e, 
are 19J inches in diameter. At the end of each suc- 
tion pipe there is a revolving cylindrical cutter 5 
feet in diameter, wliich cuts up the material to be 
inhaled by the great pumps. Each suction pipe 
is partially buoyed by a pontoon. The cutters are 
actuated by a small engine placed at the extreme 
bow of the dredge, which gives the cutters a speed 
of 25 revolutions per minute. The average speed of 
the centrifugal pumps while working is from 125 to 
130 revolutions per minute. 

The machinery for hoisting the suctions and cut- 
ters and regulating the movements of the dredge is 
shown just aft the cutter engines. 

Two vertical spuds for holding the dredge in 
place, and one pushing spud, are situated astern, 
and are moved by a small three-drum hoisting en- 
gine. The discharge or pipe conveyor is about ] ,000 
feet long, extending from the stern of the dredge to 
the dumping ground. It consists of 50-feet lengths 
of 33 J-inch steel pipe, resting on steel pontoons ; the 
pipes have rubber hose connections, and are also 
connected and held in place by steel bars. When 
the dredge is operating the pontoons are almost 
completel}^ submerged. The power generated by 
the machinery on this dredge is more than 2,500 
horse-power and her weight is more than 1,000 tons. 




DREDGE BETA. 



62 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



An electric plant of two 4,000 candle-power search- 
lights and forty 20 candle-power incandescent lights 
enables the dredge to work continuously at night. 
The dredge has a traveling crane, blacksmith shop, 
and all the outfit required to work at a distance 
from the point of supply. 




DREDGE ALPHA. 

The folio \ving is the manner of operating : After 
being placed at upper or lower edge of crossing by 
her attendant steamboat, her spuds and cutters are 
lowered to hold her in place. Two clusters of f)iles 
are then sunk up stream on the line of proposed 
dredaine extended, and cables are run from these 
piles to drums on the dredges. Piles are then sunk 
for guiding the line of discharge-piping and keeping 
the dump well removed from the cut. When these 
operations are completed, the dredge is ready for 
work ; the spuds are raised, the suctions with cut- 
ters are adjusted to the required depth, and the 
pumps and cutter engines started, the dredge being 
either dropped backward over the bar, by rendering 
the cables, or moved forward by means of engines 
near the bow. The best method seems to be pulling 
up over one cut and dropping down over the next, 
and so on, thus economizing time and obtaining the 
best results. 

As tlie centrifugal force and the reaction in the 
long line of discharge-pipe tends to give a forward 
and transverse motion to the entire attached floating- 
plant when operating, a baffle-plate is used at the 
end of the line of discharge to counteract this ten- 
dency. 

The results of the first tests of this dredge were 



very astonishing and misleading. The average 
working capacity proved to be much lower than 
that which the short-time trials of the contractor 
had given reason to expect, yet it was far above the 
working capacity of other hydraulic dredges in the 
country. 

The contractor's tests, which extended over less 
than ten minutes of actual operation, showed an 
average velocity of discharge exceeding 13 feet per 
second, a percentage of solids to gross discharge of 
23, and a delivery of 4,921 cubic yards of sand per 
hour. 

The plant for this dredge consists of two steam 
towboats, one quarter boat, one machine shop, one 
pile-di'iver and two barges. 

During the season of 1896 this dredge was 
employed on seven crossings ; her record on one near 
island 34, 179 miles below Cairo, was as follows : 
Two cuts were made nearly parallel, 40 feet apart, 
aggregating in length 2,275 feet ; the time for 
ilredging was 66 hours. More than half the work 
was done without the use of the cutters, the material 
being sucked up without previous agitation. The 
rate of advance was 24 feet per hour. The material 
was coarse sand and gravel. The suctions 
lowered to a depth of loi feet. The number of 
cubic yards moved was 91,852, an average of 1,392 
yards per hour. The total work, including towing, 
cost $1,793.42, or 2 cents per cubic yard. 







DREDGE DELTA. 

The percentage of solids to total discharge during 
the season was about 12. On one crossing this 
dredge used 89J bushels of coal per hour. The cost 
of dredging throughout the season was about 2| 
cents per cubic yard of sand moved. 

In 1895 one dredge was at work, in 1896 two, and 
in 1898 six. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



63 



In 1898 Mr. Ockerson, member of the Mississippi 
River Commission, under whose direction most of 
the dredge construction and operation were carried 
on, stated before the Senate Committee on Mississippi 
River Floods : " The work done b}^ these dredges 
has demonstrated that a cliannel can be opened 
througli the bars and tliat the channel generally 
maintains itself througliout the low-water season 
after it is opened." " There is no doubt about our 
being able to open through the sand bars a channel 
of sufficient magnitude to satisfy the demands of 
navigation." 

It has been my endeavor to show the conditions 
existing on the lower Mississippi river, and step by 
step the methods for amelioration ; by levees, dikes, 
revetments and dredging. 

I have been on the Mississippi river and connected 
with its improvement, I may say, since the 
inception of the first comprehensive plan for the 
general and continuous regulation of its navigation, 
and have seen the gradual evolution of great results 
from small beginnings. In 1878 we had small 
mattresses protecting small portions of important 
harbors ; to-day sub-aqueous revetments, almost too 
large to be called mattresses, and paved slopes reach 
for miles through long reaches of river that help to 
control its flow and provide a protection against the 
destructive action of the current at important levee 
crossings, and other points, where cut-offs threaten, 
thus training the river as it should go, and prevent- 
ing abnormal changes in regimen. 

I have seen the levees grow from a ragged, discon- 
nected chain of mounds, badly constructed and 
designed,* to a splendid system needing but the 
finishing touclies to give absolute protection and 
uninterrupted trade to the millions dwelling 
behind it. 

I have seen a fleet of the largest, most powerful 
and most effective hydraulic dredges in the world, 
the wonder and admiration of engineers of other 



* Owing to lack of sufficient funds. 



nations, designed and put to work on the crossings 
of the river, keeping them open for low-water nav- 
igation, and I realize that these great results, this 
evolution, has not been brought about by chance, 
but by the untiring energy and ability of our states- 
men, Congressmen and Senators, the splendid engi- 
neering ability of the Mississippi River Commission 
and the comprehensive united efforts of our people, 
those of the valley and all those of the western 
waterways who have met from time to time to 
further our great cause. 

As an engineer I believe in the levee system as 
the true and effectual means of controlling the Hoods 
of this great river. The day will come when the 
greatest floods will pass to the sea, "unkneird, un- 
coffin'd and unknown." In other words, 1882 and 
'97 will be out faint, dun recollections of the past, 
of conditions that used to be, but can be no more. 
High water will be a matter of little interest to the 
riparian owner, the protection against overflow will 
be so perfect. 

I believe in the continuation of the revetment of 
caving banks, thus preventing scour and extensive 
bar formation, and I believe in continuing the use 
of the dredge during low water, until such perfect 
stability of bank by revetments has proscribed its 
utility. 

In spite of the much condemned tendency toward 
combinations, it is only bv continumg to combine 
and work with ail our eneigyand heart that weAvill 
obtain the amelioration of the industrial and com- 
mercial institutions of this great valley. Freight 
rates commensurate with those on the great East and 
AVest railroad systems of the country will be ob- 
tained and safety and prosperity reign throughout 
the Delta. 

[The foregoing article has been taken in part from 
papers written by the author and published at dif- 
ferent times in the engineering journals of this coun- 
try, in the Transaction of the American Society of 
Civil Engineers, and the official reports of the War 
Department.] 



64 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 





Past— Present— Prospective 



SOME GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE LEVEE 

PROBLEM 



By MAJ. T. G. DABNEY, 

Chief Engineer of the Yazoo Mississippi Delta Levee District 



The work of building a system of levees along 
the banks of the Mississippi river, for the protec- 
tion of its alluvial plain from annual overflow, 
is, in its history, entirely unique among great en- 
gineering enterprises, in one important particular. 

When any great work involving engineering skill 
is projected, it is customary before entering upon 
its practical execution, to ascertain three vital fea- 
tures of the project: (1) is it practicable of accom- 
plishment? (2) what will be the cost? and (3) will 
the results justify the expenditure? 

The engineer first ascertains these three things; 
he determines in advance just what is to be done, 
so far as the circumstances of the case will admit, 
what will be the cost, and what will be accom- 
plished by it in beneficial results. 

The methods of levee building on the Mississippi 
river, from the inception of the work, and through- 
out its general history, have been the exact oppo- 
sites of the above-descriljed process in every par- 
ticular. 

These peculiar features of the work of levee 
building as an engineering problem are due to the 
mode of birth and development of the system. 

The first man who built a levee, or fragment of 
levee, on the bank of the Mississippi river, had no 
thought of any "levee system," but merely cast up 
a small "potato ridge" on the highest part of the 
river bank, to satisfy his immediate individual 
needs, very much as the primitix'e savage erected 
the first human edifice in the form of a bark shed, 
perhaps, to shelter himself from the rain. 

As levee building was extended by the joining of 
the efforts of one neighbor to those of others for 
their mutual advantage, and neighborhoods be- 
came involved in the enterprise, there was prob- 
ably no thought of any far reaching and enduring 
purpose to grow out of their primitive operations. 

Even after levee protection had extended into 
parish, county, and State organizations, their op- 



erations were characterized by faulty locations and 
crude methods of construction, with no aspirations 
beyond temporary expedients for immediate ef- 
fects, the interests at first to be subserved being 
comparatively small and the cost of even partial 
protection l^eing relativel}' great. In fact, the de- 
velopment of levee building in a general way kept 
pace with the development of the protected regions 
of country; and to the insufficiency of available 
resources at any given period of the progressive 
stages of the work, was due the necessity of pur- 
suing a temporizing policy at all stages. 

One result of the causes above set forth has 
been an aggregated expenditure greatly in excess 
of what would have been required to construct — ■ 
de novo — a perfected system of levees throughout 
the alluvial valley. 

Another evil consequence of former imperfect 
methods in the location and construction of exist- 
ing levee lines, which has unfortunately projected 
itself into the levee problem of the present and 
future, arises from the fact that, to a large extent, 
old and imperfect levees necessarily form the nu- 
cleus upon which the present system is builded. 

From the early times of levee building, as the 
high water plane progressively rose to higher ele- 
vations from the extension of the lines of levee, 
additional strength and height was attained by en- 
largement upon pre-existing levees; and new loca- 
tions, where necessary, were made on the least ex- 
pensive lines compatible with the then present, and 
immediate future security — due, primarily, to re-, 
stricted means as well as to a want of knowledge 
and comprehension of the dignity of the levee 
problem in its entirety. 

A NEW ERA 

A period about a dozen years ago may be re- 
garded as marking a new era in levee building. 
About that time, and subsequently, a strong im- 



66 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



petus was given to the work by the interest in the 
subject shown by the Federal Government, coupled 
with the large extent of material aid contributed 
in the form of Congressional appropriations. 

It may be here remarked that the large share of 
such appropriations that has been applied to the 
levee feature of Mississippi river improvement is 
directly due to the sympathy and liberality of the 
Mississippi River Commission, as that controlling 
authority could readily have found pretexts, under 
the acts of appropriation, for withholding any part 
of the money from application to the levees, or of 
restricting the sums so applied to much smaller 
amounts. 

It may be further remarked in this connection 
that a probable incentive to this liberality is the 
fact that money expended in levee work was not 
attended by any of the uncertainties that attached 
to expenditures in the other experimental fields of 
river improvement, but every dollar so applied re- 
sulted in certain and palpable benefit of a most 
valuable sort. 

MORE SCIENTIFIC METHODS 

About the period above mentioned was first in- 
augurated an eifort to apply a more scientific sys- 
tem to the location and construction of levees in 
the place of the crude and temporizing methods 
of the past, the adherence to which to so late a 
period was the result of restricted means rather 
than a lack of appreciation of the advantages of 
improvement in this field, by the levee engineers 
at least. And even now, after the fullest develop- 
ment in such improvement that is compatible with 
available resources, we fall short of building ideal 
levees, because the cost would be too great to be 
considered. 

CREDIT FOR IMPROVEMENT 

It may be here remarked that while the levee 
interests are deeply indebted to the several very 
a1)le and conscientious members of the United 
States Engineer Corps who have administered the 
Government's share in levee building, between 
whom and the local engineers have always sub- 
sisted cordial relations, yet it is unfair to assign 
to those gentlemen, as has been done in some 
quarters, the entire credit for the improvement 
above alluded to, and which they would not claim 
for themselves, such advancement in methods 



being rather the consequence of increased resources 
than of the injection of new ideas. 

When the United States engineers first came 
into this field, it may be said without any dispar- 
agement to them, they came upon grovmd that 
was new to them, and were naturally and of neces- 
sity dependent upon the local engineers of long 
experience in levee work for their earlier informa- 
tion on the subject. 

As a matter of fact, the Levee Board of the 
upper Yazoo District was the pioneer in the im- 
provement of levee location and construction; and 
even at the present time, the standards in levee 
building are higher in this District than elsewhere 
on the Mississippi river. 

It may be pertinent to quote here a passage from 
a report made 1)y the writer in 1895: 

"As a consequence of the combination of insuf- 
ficient present resources and varying flood condi- 
tions, the levee systems have grown up as patch- 
work, which effect is heightened by recent prog- 
ress in better methods of levee construction, great 
advancement having been made in this direction 
during the past dozen years, in consequence of 
greater demands on the resisting powers of levees 
and a more determined effort than ever before 
made to successfully control the floods of the Mis- 
sissippi river. 

"Much of the improvement of the methods of 
levee building is due also to the growing experi- 
ence of engineers and a more serious purpose to 
study the subject closely and master its intrica- 
cies. 

"Indeed, prior to about the year 1884 lack of 
means so dominated in levee matters that very 
unscientific methods of construction and location 
were necessarily resorted to, with the inevitable 
result of uneconomical expenditure of money, and 
levees that gave way under the pressure of every 
high water. With the infusion of government 
funds, and increased means from local sources, 
much more thorough methods of construction have 
been introduced, and we now build levees to stand 
high water without breaking." 

Neither should the announcement that none of 
the levees built by the United States have broken 
in recent floods, be assumed to mean especial supe- 
riority for those levees; since it may be said with 
equal truth that none of those were broken that 
were built in recent years by the Levee Boards. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



67 



Crevasses occurred only in very old and imperfect 
levees. 

In support of the above statement, it may be 
said further that no crevasse has occurred in any 
levee built under the present administration of 
the upper Yazoo District, that is, since 1884, with 
a single exception. This exception was a crevasse 
in 1891, with a comparatively low flood and under 
a moderate strain, that occurred in a levee built by 
the United States and the Levee Board jointly, 
and concerning which there was conclusive evi- 
dence that it was the work of human hands instead 
of natural causes. 

IMPERFECTIONS IN OLD LEVEES 

The imperfections of the levees that were built 
in former years, that have come down as legacies 
to plague the engineers of the present time, were 
due to several causes: 

(1) From the temporary character of the work, 
less importance was attached to the methods em- 
ployed and less care bestowed than at present. 

(2) Partly from lack of means and partly from 
the above-mentioned cause, no pains were taken to 
prepare the foundation of new structures. Numer- 
ous large stumps, and even trunks of trees, were 
covered up, and in soft depressions that had to be 
crossed foundations were often made of such per- 
ishable matter as logs and tree tops. 

(The policy of grubbing out all stumps from the 
foundations of levees was first inaugurated in 1886 
by the Levee Board of the upper Yazoo District. 
Other Levee Boards then looked upon this as an 
extravagant use of funds.) 

(3) From lack of appreciation of the dignity 
and importance of levees the engineering super- 
vision was very insufficient, the rule being that 
contractors were allowed to execute their con- 
tracts with no inspector present to see the manner 
of its performance, which led to a great deal of 
careless, not to say fraudulent, work. 

And (4) the low appreciation in which levees 
were generally held, led to entire neglect and gen- 
eral abuse of them at all times except in the pres- 
ence of high water dangers, a brief period occur- 
ring at long intervals of time. One effect of such 
neglect was that forest trees were permitted to 
■grow to large size on the levees, in many places 
rendering them undistinguishable from the adja- 
cent forest, by which the embankments were filled 
with great masses of roots, which, with buried 



stumps and logs, rotted after a lapse of years and 
became elements of great weakness and defection. 
The rapid growth of all vegetation in this rich soil 
and humid climate, with the corresponding rapid 
decay, contributed greatly to this result. 

Among the difficult tasks of recent levee engi- 
neering has been that of detecting and removing 
from old levees these concealed sources of defec- 
tion, where the old levees have been incorporated 
into the present system. 

DOUBTS OF EFFICIENCY 

Li view of the foregoing it is not surprising that 
the ultimate efficiency of levees, as an agent for the 
protection of the Mississippi river alluvial lands, 
has been held in doubt and disparagements by 
many persons who were unfamiliar with all the 
facts and circumstances of the case. 

I believe it may be said with confidence that no 
engineer who is at all conversant with the subject 
entertains such doubts, or regards the problem 
otherwise than as a matter of dollars and cents. 
In other words, the problem of levee protection re- 
solves itself into the simple aphorism: enough dirt, 
properly bestowed, in the right place. 

NEW CONDITIONS 

In the great flood of 1897, when very extensive 
changes had been made, since the last preceding 
high water, in those conditions that influence the 
flood regimen of the river, and when vastly greater 
changes had been made in such conditions since 
the last flood that approached this one in volume 
and duration, as a consequence there were many 
miles of levees that were subjected to a strain very 
much in excess of what they were built to resist. 
Instead of having a margin of safety above the 
flood plane, the opposing flood had a margin of 
danger above the top of the levee, and was only 
prevented from running over by robbing the levee 
itself to obtain material to be piled up on top before 
the miles of advancing water. Thus, not only were 
the levees subjected to a much greater strain than 
they were designed to meet, but at the same time 
were materially weakened by robbing the slope to 
increase the height. 

It would seem to be creditable to the efficiency 
of the levees of the upper Yazoo District, that on 
fifty miles of their extent whereon the water at- 
tained an elevation of a few tenths to three feet 



68 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



above the top of the levee, under a prolonged 
strain only one crevasse occurred, and that in a 
levee originally built over forty years ago, and con- 
taining inherent defects from its original mode of 
construction. 

BASIC FACTORS 

At the present juncture, those who are con- 
cerned in the levee problem are confronted by two 
main factors: (1) the determining of ultimate grade 
lines for levees to hold maximum floods when en- 
tirely confined to the channel of the river; and (2) 
providing the means to build up to these grades. 

In considering the first cjuestion presented 
above, the following quotation is taken from a re- 
port by the writer made in 1895: 

"Since the beginning of organized efforts to pro- 
tect portions of the Alississippi delta from over- 
flow, the question of proper grade lines for levees 
has been the one perplexing and insolvable feature 
of the problem. The difficulty has been due to the 
infinitely varied conditions under which different 
floods have come. The several large tributaries to 
the Mississippi, with their varying volumes, at dif- 
ferent periods, have constituted one important 
source of variation in flood conditions. 

"But the most potent cause of variability has 
been in the volume of water escaping from the 
channel, differing at different periods from the 
progress of local levee building, or, per centra, from 
the escape through broken levees. 

"The task that each levee engineer has set for 
himself has been to meet the immediate and vis- 
ible needs of the situation then existing, always 
with insufficient means to do more than keep his 
grade lines above the highest local water marks — • 
often with means insufficient to do even that — in 
a constant struggle to advance his grades to meet 
advancing flood heights and leave a reasonable 
margin of safety for unforseen contingencies. 

"There have never been at his command either 
present resources or present information upon 
which to base an effort to reach the final goal — to 
build levees high enough and strong enough to re- 
sist the highest water that might ever be expected 
to tax their strength and endurance. 

"Indeed, such a standard of levees, if it had been 
adopted prematurely, would have proven an un- 
wise expenditure of money, resulting in a much 
greater height and strength of levees than the then 
present needs demanded, much of which, on tem- 



porary locations, would have been sacrificed to 
caving banks. 

"In the nature of the problem, then, the ques- 
tion of standards in levee building must have been 
tentative and progressive." 

DISCOURAGEMENT AMONG THE 
PEOPLE 

The ever increasing elevation of the floods, with 
advancing restriction of the flood volume by the 
extension of new lines of levees, has presented it- 
self to the contemplation of the "lay" mind with 
discouraging effect. This was markedly the case 
in 1897, when much greater changes had been 
wrought in local flood conditions than at any other 
period in the history of levee building. To the aver- 
age citizen who did not understand the specific 
causes that produced special and extraordinary 
developments in flood elevation, and could not see 
the limitations upon those causes, there seemed to 
be no stopping place for the upward movement, 
within any practicable bounds. 

Take, for example, the front of the White River 
Basin. Here, levees had been maintained for a 
long period of years on the eastern side of the Mis- 
sissippi river opposite to that front, while on the 
western side the flood water had escaped unre- 
strained into the White river swamps. The flood 
plane normal to these conditions had a depression 
along the middle part of that front, some five or 
six feet below that normal to a confined flood vol- 
ume. 

The flood of 1897 found this part of the river 
leveed on both sides, for the first time perhaps in 
its history. The immediate effect vvas to fill up 
the depression and establish a new flood plane in 
accordance with the new conditions in their rela- 
tion to the gauge at Helena, Ark., at the head of 
the White River Basin. 

Upon this new flood plane would have been 
superposed the additional height at Helena, but 
that the numerous breaks in the levees along the 
White River Basin before the culmination of the 
flood permitted the excess of water to escape. 

While these phenomenal developments were be- 
wildering and appalling to citizens immediately 
concerned, the cause and secjuence, and probable 
limitation of the upward movement, is apparent to 
the discriminating engineer. Like conditions will 
be set up along the St. Francis front when that 



Past— Present— Prospective 



69 




CAMP OF LEVEE ENGINEERS. 





CAMP OF LEVEE CONTRACTOR. 



BLOWING OUT THE RIGHT OF WAY. 




RIGHT OF WAY "CLEARED." 



70 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



basin has been completely leveed, with the maxi- 
mum effects probably along its middle portion. 

The flood of 1897 was epoch making in the light 
it has thrown upon the question of ultimate grades. 
While it cannot now be said with precision how 
high the ultimate flood elevation will reach at any 
given point, yet the margin of uncertainty may be 
said to have been reduced to workable limits, so 
that engineers can compute with considerable con- 
fidence the amount of final cost necessary to a per- 
fected levee system from Cairo to the Gulf. 

This amount has been estimated by the Missis- 
sippi River Commission at $20,000,000, which esti- 
mate is generally concurred in by levee engineers. 

REVENUE FOR ULTIMATE COM- 
PLETION 

This brings up the cjuestion as to the source or 
sources from which this money is to come; and 
here another quotation from the writer's report of 
1895 may not be inappropriate, which is as .follows: 

"It is probably fortunate for the interests of 
levee protection that it could not be foreseen a 
dozen years ago what increasing demands would 
arise to build levees that would certainly give se- 
curity from overflow, and to meet increasing flood 
elevations, due to increasing progress in levee ex- 
tension. A complete fore-knowledge of the enor- 
mous expenditures involved, instead of a gradual 
realization, would probably have discouraged all 
attempts at beginning; whereas good enough has 
already been accomplished to justify the expendi- 
ture made. And complete and permanent security 
from overflow is now within the grasp of the peo- 
ple, provided there is no relaxation in their efforts 
until it is accomplished." 

THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 

It is the hope of many that the United States 
will assume entire control of the whole matter of 
levee building, and furnish all the funds necessary 
for completing a general system of levee protec- 
tion. 

This is "a consummation devoutly to be wished," 
certainly from a financial standpoint, as it would 
afford vast relief to the overburdened taxpayers, 
who have already expended so much money and 
effort in this herculean enterprise. 

If, however, this hope cannot be fully realized 
in the immediate future, it may be expedient to 



try for "half a loaf" instead, to begin with, which 
vantage ground would greatly aid in getting the 
other half later. 

When Mr. Benjamin Harrison was President of 
the United States, although his attitude was some- 
what hostile towards the expenditure of Govern- 
ment money on the levees, he was reported in the 
newspapers to have expressed himself in an inter- 
view with some levee advocates as being willing 
for the United States to pay one-half the necessary 
cost of levee building, while the local interests 
should pay the other half. 

This appears to have been in recognition of a 
community of interests in the levees as between 
the United States and the land owners in the re- 
gion of overflow, the former being concerned in 
their function as an aid to navigation, and the lat- 
ter in protection for their lands. 

Other representatives of the Government have 
more recentl)' revived this suggestion as a basis 
for the settlement of this question. 

In the event of failure to realize the larger aspira- 
tion at this juncture, if the above principle were 
recognized, and so settled, it would be a great and 
valuable gain for the levee interests, as definitely 
committing the United States to the assumption 
of an obligation in the premises, whereas the aid 
heretofore extended to levee work by the Govern- 
ment has been in the nature of gratuity, the further 
extension of which the Congress is at liberty to 
withhold at any time. 

In this connection another consideration may be 
entitled to weight, to-wit: if the Government 
should admit the obligation to pay one-half the 
cost of a perfected levee system, the fact that the 
Levee Boards of the larger districts have already 
contributed an aggregate amount greatly in ex- 
cess of the Government contributions, ought to 
entitle them to credit for such excess in future dis- 
tributions of Government funds. 

COST OF MAINTENANCE 

The cjuestion of the cost of maintenance of a 
levee system after being perfected has been a sub- 
ject of much inquiry by the Senate Committee 
charged with the investigation of the levee ques- 
tion. The cost of simple maintenance, other than 
that of renewals of portions of the levee lines at- 
tacked by caving banks, would be very small, com- 
paratively speaking. The only very considerable 
item of cost of maintenance would be that of re- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



71 





COMMENCING LEVEE BUILDING ON THE RIGHT OF WAY. 



HIGH WATER SCENE, PITCHER'S POINT, 



.# 




"MS 

i 'Tf^Ti]D@::^i|#fiU 




HIGH WATER— STEAMBOAT LYING AT LEVEE. 



72 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



newing parts of the levees that shall have caved 
into the river, assuming that there would be no 
crevasses from high water pressure. 

The expressions of various engineers, civil and 
military, who are more or less conversant with the 
subject, as published in the report of the Senate 
Sub-Committee who made the investigation, indi- 
cates that the average annual loss of levees by 
caving ranges from 2 to 5 per cent, 2 1-2 per cent 
being about the average, of the linear extent of the 
levee lines. 

I believe the questions asked the several wit- 
nesses, on this point, by the investigating commit- 
tee that elicited the above expressions, gave the 
deponents but little opportunity for reflection be- 
fore giving their estimates or opinions. 

In reflecting upon this question I am impressed 
by the following considerations: The extent of 
the levee lines on both sides of the river, between 
the mouth of the Arkansas and the mouth of the 
Red river, is approximately 540 miles. Along this 
extent of river the steep slopes, large volume of 
flood water, and yielding character of bank forma- 
tion, give a maximum rate of bank caving greatly 
exceeding the rate both above and below that ex- 
tent of river. The extent of levee lines above and 
below the above named limits, where the rate of 
caving is minimized by the flat slope below, and 
lesser volume above, is nearly twice as great as that 
along the region of maximum caving. 

Under the writer's observation the loss by cav- 
ing, or rather the extent of new levee necessitated 
by caving banks, has been under seven per cent 
during fifteen years, or less than one-half of one 
per cent per year, in the upper Yazoo District. It 
may be presumed that this represents something 
like the general rate of annual loss above the Ar- 
kansas river and below Red river; and that, under 
conditions of less security than would obtain in a 
perfected system of levees. 

My deduction is, that an average of one per cent 
a year would represent fully the a\-erage annual 
loss in linear extent of all the levee lines along the 
river with a perfected system of levees. 

ELEVATION OF THE RIVER BED 

The question as to whether leveeing the Missis- 
sippi river has a tendency to elevate its bed, had 
been a bugbear in the minds of many people. Most 
persons who for any reason are antagonistic to 
levees, have no scruple in making the bold asser- 



tion that leveeing the river has that effect, and 
that there will be no limit to the height to which 
levees must be built to be kept above the ever 
rising flood plane. Many others who are not an- 
tagonistic to the levee interests have imbibed that 
notion also. 

When asked for evidence to support such asser- 
tion, none can be given; or for reasons for such 
belief they have none, except perhaps of a fantas- 
tic sort. And the notion is widely prevalent. 

A good many years ago, in some unaccountable 
manner, the story became current that the River 
Po, in Italy, afiforded an example wherein its bed 
had risen in consequence of being leveed for a long 
period, until it had reached an elevation above the 
adjacent country. It is difficult to conceive how 
such a story could have got abroad, having not the 
slightest foundation in fact. And yet it was seized 
upon with avidity and passed from mouth to mouth 
with ready acceptance. 

A thorough investigation of the River Po story 
revealed the fact that during a period of two cen- 
turies of its leveed history, in some places in the 
upper reaches of this river, the bed had risen about 
one foot, due to the presence of gravel, that could 
not be easily moved by the current. In other 
places the examination showed a depression in the 
bed of the stream. 

A similar story has been current regarding the 
Yellow river in China. Our information about the 
characteristics of the China river is too meager to 
warrant us in drawing an analogy between that 
stream and the Mississippi river. We do know, 
however, that the Yellow river passes for a long 
distance through a low flat plain, and that it has 
suddenly changed its channel of discharge into the 
ocean to a point several hundred miles from its 
former mouth; which indicates a very marked dis- 
similarity between that stream and the Mississippi. 

The River Commission has given very careful 
study to this question, in relation to the Mississippi 
river. 

Among other methods of investigation, one was 
to cause elaborate soundings to be made over an 
extent of four hundred miles of leveed river chan- 
nel, which were repeated over the same lines after 
an interval of fourteen years. It was found difficult 
to arrive at a conclusive decision from a compari- 
son of these two sets of soundings, owing to the 
mobile and shifting character of the materials com- 
posing the river bed. Where a shoal would be 



Past— Present— Prospective 



73 



found on a given line of soundings at one period, 
a pool would appear at another time along the 
same line, and vice versa. But so accurate and 
conservative an engineer as General C. B. Com- 
stock, after a careful examination of all the data 
afforded by these soundings, stated that there was 
no evidence that the bed of the river had risen dur- 
ing the period covered by his investigations. 
While it seems impossible to obtain positive and 
direct evidence on this question except after a 
long lapse of time, there are some facts, a good deal 
of indirect and negative evidence, and the deduc- 
tions from a priori reasoning, all tending to con- 
firm the above conclusion. 

ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE FILLING-UP 
THEORY 

Some of the arguments opposed to the filling- up 
assumption are the following: (1) We have the 
concrete fact, that the River Po, presenting phe- 
nomena somewhat similar to the case under dis- 
cussion, has not appreciably silted up its bed dur- 
ing a period of two hundred years. 

(2) The Mississippi river, between New Madrid, 
Mo., and Helena, Ark., has for a very long time 
been depleted by the diversion of a large part of 
its flood volume from the main channel through 
the St. Francis river, returning through that 
stream to the present river near Helena. We 
ought logically to find that this section of the main 
channel has suffered deterioration Ijy the dissipa- 
tion of part of the energy of its flood volume. And 
that is what we do find; for the low water plane in 
this part of the river is shown to be several feet 
above the normal for an undivided volume, which 
could only have resulted from silting up the bed, 
in obedience to the law that adjusts the capacity 
of a channel to the volume it has to carry. 

(3) In the year 1894, the low water plane from 
Cairo down was generally much lower than any 
former records show, and the depression was most 
conspicuous where the greatest influence had been 
exercised by levees, while the volume that passed 
Cairo, and the lower tributaries, was not less than 
in other low water seasons. 

(■i) Observations show that where important 
crevasses in the levees have remained open for a 
series of years, through which a large portion of 
the flood volume has escaped, the river channel im- 
mediatelv below such crevasses has suffered de- 



terioration from silting up, as a consequence of di- 
minished energy of the current. 

(5) We know that the materials that compose 
the bottom and sides of the river bed yield readily 
to the scouring action of the current wherever it 
is directed against them. Also that an increased 
volume of water in such a bed should demand and 
create for itself an increase of channel capacity, 
which should logically be by erosion on both the 
sides and bottom; and this is in accordance with 
the facts wherever observed. 

THEORETIC VIEW 

In theorizing in a general way upon this rather 
obscure proljlem, the following reflections suggest 
themselves, and are here given for what they may 
be worth: We know that throughout the history 
of the Mississippi ri\'er, there has been a general 
filling up of its alluvial plain and of the river bed 
along with it, by material brought down from the 
hill country above. But the great bulk of these 
results now displayed to our observation, were in 
consequence of geological agencies covering very 
long periods of time, and long anterior to the pres- 
ent era. 

The conditions as we now find them, indicate 
that the alluvial agencies have very nearly reached 
a state of equilibrium, as between the quantity of 
alluvial matter brought into the head of the basin 
and the cjuantity carried out at its mouth; and the 
further progress of the filling up movement is ex- 
ceedingly slow. We see rapid mutations along the 
banks of the river, in the immediate vicinity of its 
channel, as well as within the channel itself, which 
make the impression of a vast capacity of the river 
to build up. But the material that we see so 
handled by the river is derived from a previous 
tearing down of its own banks and bed, and is de- 
posited in compensation for a previous displace- 
"ment of other material. The river under natural 
conditions enters the alluvial basin with a certain 
Cjuantity of sedimentary matter, held in suspension 
or rolled along its bed. It departs through its 
several mouths and carries into the Gulf of Mexico 
a certain quantity of such matter. The quantity 
carried out into the Gulf, plus the quantity depos- 
ited over the alluvial plain Ijetween its head and 
foot must exactly equal that brought in from 
above. But the quantity spread over the alluvial 
plain away from the inmiediate vicinity of the river, 
is relatively speaking, exceedingly small — I mean 



74 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



when the escape of water is unrestrained by levees. 
The river water when in a turbulent condition, at 
the top of the flood volume, contains one part of 
sediment to twelve or fifteen hundred parts of 
water, mostly derived from local sources, and most 
of which is locally precipitated by the escaping 
water, that is, on or near the river banks where it 
is again yielded up to the channel volume by caving 
or erosion. The escaping flood water carries away 
from the river, over its banks, but a small relative 
quantity of sediment, and that mainly pursues the 
bayou channels. Some deposit is left along the 
banks of the bayous where they are over topped by 
the flood, which however is quite unusual under 
natural conditions of overflow, in the existing 
stage of alluvial formativeness. Most of this bur- 
den of fine silt that is borne away from the vicinity 
of the main channel, is carried on through the sub- 



sidiary channels and re-enters the river, below. The 
overflow water that covers the intervening plain, 
outside of the bayou channels and their associated 
ridges has little or no motion, and its cjuantity of 
deposit is inconsiderable. 

Now, where the escape of flood water from the 
channel is prevented by levees, the suggestion is 
that the increased volume of water within the 
channel so far increases the energy of movement 
and consequent carrying capacity, as to enable the 
river not only to convey this small excess of ma- 
terial into the Gulf, but also to enlarge its channel 
by scouring the bed, as well as l)y eroding the 
banks, so as to accommodate the increased volume 
which has been imposed upon it. 

If this view is correct, the apprehension that the 
Mississippi river will silt up its bed in consequence 
of being leveed, is manifestly unfounded. 




MOONLIGHT ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



75 



?^p^!W*~ 





76 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



RIVER BASINS AND THE LEVEES WHICH PROTECT 

THEM 



By major WILLIAM STARLING 



Every man who is in the habit of making jour- 
neys on the great hnes of raihvay has proljably 
observed some of the phenomena of alhivial valleys, 
for these are selected by the engineers as a bed 
already partially graded by nature for their road- 
ways. In ascending a mountain range, instead of 
excavating, escarping and tunneling a road for 
ourselves, we have only to find in the lowlands a 
river, the general direction of whose course cor- 
responds, as nearly as may be to the route sought 
by us, and then following the stream upward to- 
ward one of its sources. In this manner we are 
conducted by an ascent, easy and gentle at first, 
afterwards steeper and steeper, to the dividing 
ridge, whence, by a reversal of the former process, 
we gradually descend to the plains on the other 
side. Those whose faculties are not buried in sleep 
or benumbed by a dull novel will have observed 
that the river, after running between iron-bound 
rocks, expands occasionally into broad and fertile 
"bottoms," becoming wider, longer and more con- 
tinuous as vfe descend. These bottoms are bound- 
ed on either side by the highlands which have 
served to limit the excursions of the river, and this 
latter wanders through the valley, skirting the base 
of the hills, now on this side, now on that, pursuing 
a tortuous course through the bed which it has 
made for itself; for the bottoms are the work of 
the river — are composed of sediment brought down 
in time of fiood, and spread far and wide as the 
swollen stream overflowed its narrow banks. Br- 
ing the product of the stream, they are composed 
of pulverized material, free, for the most part, of 
stones and heavy fragments. Being formed by 
overflow, they can never rise above the level of the 
stream in flood; indeed, can never attain the height 
of extreme floods, and nmst always be liable to 
overflow in great freshets. 

Thus the valley, continuous it may be in itself, 
is divided into a series of subordinate basins, each 



bounded by the river on the one hand and the hills 
on the other, and terminated, above and below, by 
the close approach of the highlands to the stream. 

What occurs to creeks and mountain streams on 
the small scale, occurs also to the greatest rivers. 
The history of the Ohio and Mississippi is a good 
deal the same as the history of the rivulets from 
which they originate, multiplied a thousand-fold. 
The most insignificant meadow-brook is a Missis- 
sippi in miniature; and the student of river engi- 
neering has often spent most profitable hours in 
contemplating, on a scale which may be easily em- 
braced by the eye and the understanding, phenom- 
ena which embarrass and bewilder him when pre- 
sented with magnificence and complexity which at- 
tend the operations of a mighty river. 

In mountainous countries creek-bottoms are of 
great importance on account of their unexampled 
fertility, all the more, as distinguished from the 
stony and arid tracts which surround them. Offer- 
ing no impediments to the plough, being nearly 
level, and having excellent drainage, they possess 
unusual advantages for cultivation. They have but 
one drawback. A flood of unusual height may sub- 
merge them, and the farmer may loose his labor 
partially or wholly — partially, if the flood be not 
very great, or occur so early that the crop may 
be replanted; wholly, under very unfavorable cir- 
cumstances, for not only may the overflow occur 
late in the season, when the greatest outlay has 
been incurred, and the owner is about to reap his 
return, but the flood may be of such magnitude as 
to sweep away the accumulated labor of former 
years — fences, stables, even dwellings, and may go 
so far as to cause loss of life itself. 

Overflows occur, of course, because the ordinary 
channel of the stream is not sufficient to contain 
the unusual quantity of water poured forth at the 
height of the flood; neither can it ever become 
sufficient under the operation of purely natural 



Past— Present— Prospective 



77 



causes. The stream has built for itself a bed, dis- 
tributing its sedimentar)' matter beyond its banks, 
and preserving for itself a channel suited to its or- 
dinary wants. Great floods occur too seldom, and 
endure too short a time to exercise a marked influ- 
ence in enlarging the channel by their excavating 
power. 

So valuable are the bottom lands that they are 
almost always cultivated in spite of the danger of 
overflow. It is natural, however, that means 
should be sought to protect them from this calam- 
ity. Now, to give flood" plains immunity from in- 
undation, only one means exists; that is, to make 
the river-channel large enough to hold all the 
water, ordinary or extraordinary, that can possilslv 
be poured into it. To enlarge the channel we must 
adopt one of two alternatives — dig its bottom 
deeper or wider, or build its banks higher. The 
latter being by far the easier and cheaper process, 
is the expedient commonly adopted; the more, that 
it does not exclude the former, nor is at all antag- 
onistic to it, but, on the contrary, facilitates it 
and co-operates with it. 

Thus, the system of artificial embankments or 
levees, as the French settlers called them, natur- 
ally suggests itself wherever there are alluvial bot- 
toms or flood plains of considerable extent. It is 
a method which cannot generally be used with ad- 
vantage on a small scale for several reasons. When 
streams are ordinarily inconsiderable, with high 
freshets and the flood plains narrow, levees are ex- 
pensive and out of proportion to the benefit to be 
derived. In narrow valleys the line would have 
to be very long to protect an insignificant area. 
Not only so, but being hemmed in between the 
hills on one side and the levees on the other, there 
woiild be no drainage, and the injury from rain 
and surface water would perhaps be greater than 
from overflow. 

The method of protection by means of levees is 
then peculiarly applicable in the case of large riv- 
ers with very wide valleys, and under these circum- 
stances it has long been successfully practiced. The 
question of drainage, however, is still a serious one. 
The great basins are usually heavily overgrown 
with timber. Evaporation is consequently very 
slow, and the accumulation of rain and surface 
water is very great, especially in the lower part of 
the protected area. For it must be remembered 
that bottom lands are by no means level in the 
strict sense of the word, but follow the fall of the 



flood line — that is, they slope toward the sea. 
Therefore, if drainage be free, all the water which 
collects in an enclosed area will accumulate at the 
lower end. This aggregation will not only occupy 
a great space which might profitably be reclaimed, 
but will greatly impede the free flow of drainage 
waters from the upper part of the area. Conse- 
quently, in a strictly enclosed basin, it is found 
necessary to provide pumps or equivalent means 
of getting rid of the surplus waters. Culverts may 
be used, but, of course, are available only after the 
flood waters have begun to recede. 

In the case of a very large basin it may be found 
the best plan to leave the1:ower part thereof en- 
tirely open. This portion will thus be subject to 
overflow, but only to a limited extent. For the 
flood waters, entering at the very foot of the basin 
— that is, at the lowest possible elevation — cannot 
mount higher than the level of that part of the 
stream. As the flood plain has a considerable 
slope, the upper part will be perfectly dry. For 
instance, the fall of the flood plain of the Missis- 
sippi river from Memphis to Vicksburg is about 
two-thirds of a foot to the mile. The average 
height of the greatest floods above the surface of 
this flood plain is perhaps eight feet. Suppose a 
system of levees, complete in its upper part, to 
terminate abruptly at any given point. Then at 
that point the land will be overflowed eight feet. 
Twelve miles above the land will be just a wash. 
Twenty-four miles above the land will be eight feet 
out of water. 

The course which has been prescribed for theo- 
retical reasons has been made compulsory in the 
case of the Mississippi by the intervention of trib- 
utaries. Every basin of considerable size must of 
necessity have an auxiliary stream or streams to 
drain it into the main river. Usually, from the 
nature of the case, the drainage is concentrated 
into one stream. The borders of the main river 
are high, for they receive the bulk of the deposit, 
as fresh quantities of loaded water are contin- 
ually arriving, which dro]) the greater portion of 
their burden as soon as they become dispersed, and 
afterwards less and less as the water becomes more 
stagnant and clearer. Thus, small streams, trib- 
utarv to the main river, or inlet bayous as they 
are called, are rare. The course of drainage almost 
always is from the high alluvial ridge on the bank 
of the river to the low lands in the interior, and 
eventuallv to the main tributary which skirts the 



78 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



hills, and at the foot of its basin discharges into 
the Mississippi. These tributaries are usually of 
such magnitude that it would be well nigh impos- 
sible to levee them. They receive, beside tl'e 
drainage of the alluvial basin proper, large acces- 
sions from minor streams which descend from the 
hills, so that even if they could be leveed the vol- 
ume of water thus imprisoned behind the levee 
would be portentiously great, too great to be 
pumped out or discharged in any reasonable time 
through a culvert, so their mouths have to be left 
open perforce. The basins narrow toward the 
lower end, so that the quantity of land damaged 
is still further reduced. 

The valley of the Mississippi, like all others, is 
divided into a number of subordinate basins by the 
approach of the hills on either side. Some of these 
basins are very small, others are of enormous ex- 
tent. Each is in a great measure independent of 
the others, so that the task of protection from 
overflow is much simplified and rendered more 
practicable, as it does not necessarily recjuire a 
vast and simultaneous organized effort, or even a 
continuous system, but may be effected in detail, 
according to the needs and abilities of separate 
sections. 

The small basins do not afford the best field for 
the application of the levee system for reasons 
already given, and for the additional reason that in 
them backwater from the mouth of the tributary 
is destructive out of proportion. For instance, if 
the influence of backwater is more or less detri- 
mental 15 miles above the mouth of the tributar}', 
and the basin be only 20 miles long, then three- 
fourths of it will be more or less liable to injury 
in time of flood. But if the basin be 150 miles 
long, then only one-tenth will suffer. 

It is to the great basins, consequently, that we 
must look for examples of successful protection 
by levees. Below Cairo the Mississippi has four 
such basins, drained respectively by the Saint 
Francis, the Yazoo, the Tensas and the Atchafa- 
laya rivers and their tributaries. The last three 
have been wholly or partially leveed for many 
years. The nearest approximation to a complete 
system has been made on the Yazoo front. 

The Yazoo basin has every advantage that the 
engineer could ask for a fair trial of the levee sys- 
tem. It begins a short distance below Memphis 
and extends to a point a little above Vicksburg. 
At each of these localities the highlands actually 



abut upon the Mississippi river, thus completely 
isolating the basin, and affording a secure support 
for the ends of the line of levees. The front of the 
basin, measured according to the sinuosities of the 
Mississippi, is about three hundred and fifty miles 
long. In a straight line the distance is about one 
hundred and eighty miles. Its shape is lenticular, 
the Yazoo hills forming one arc and the Missis- 
sippi river the other. Its extreme breadth is about 
sixty miles. There are no "inlet bayous," the 
drainage being altogether toward the interior, and 
eventually into the Yazoo river. This, under one 
name or another, skirts the base of the hills, and 
empties into the main river just above Vicksburg. 

The entire front of the Yazoo basin is closed by 
a continuous embankment, extending from the 
uplands below Memphis to within about eight 
miles of the mouth of the Yazoo. This embank- 
ment does not strictly follow the line of the river, 
but sometimes takes short cuts, so that its length 
is about three hundred miles. The material of 
which it is composed is earth entirely. It is usually 
eight feet wide on top. The height is defined by 
reference to some great flood, usually the most 
recent. The angle of inclination of each of the 
slopes of the embankment, front and back, is fixed 
by the proportion, three of base to one of altitude, 
though sometimes the dimensions fall short of 
these and sometimes they exceed them. In fact, 
both in height and strength, the levees are some- 
what irregular. 

The causes of these variations in construction 
are not usually to be sought in any scientific con- 
siderations. They are due, for the most part, to 
the haphazard manner in which the levees were 
built. Originally constructed by private enter-^ 
prise for the reclamation of partial areas, they have 
been connected, raised, enlarged, repaired, demol- 
ished by crevasse and overflow, wiped out of ex- 
istence by caving into the river and replaced by 
entirely new lines joined to the old at suitable 
places, as necessity dictated or financial conditions 
permitted. The system is a patchwork, in fact, the 
result of many different periods, organizations and 
administrations, having diverse views of policy and 
managed with all possible differences of ability and 
resources. To enter into a minute history of the 
levee system would probably be neither interest- 
ing nor profitable, except to a professed student 
of that subject. With reference to the Yazoo 
front, it may be sufficient to say that the close of 



Past— Present— Prospective 



79 



the civil war found in existence two "levee dis- 
tricts," as they are called, each containing several 
counties, and embracing together the whole Yazoo 
basin. Of these, the upper, or District No. 1, fell 
into bad hands, in the confusion and misgovern- 
ment of the reconstruction period, and eventually 
lapsed into complete decay, and its levees were 
suffered to go to ruin. The lower district was then 
reorganized and rebaptized as the Mississippi levee 
district, and has maintained a flourishing exist- 
ence, under one name or the other, for the last 
twenty-live years. In 1884 the counties not in- 
cluded in this district were incorporated into a new 
organization called the Yazoo-Mississippi delta 
levee district, which thus consists substantially of 
nearly the same territory as old District No. 1, but 
is to be carefully distinguished from it, as it does 
not and should not inherit the evil reputation or 
the impaid obligation of that corporation. 

As at present organized, the levees of tlie Yazoo 
front are maintained by two districts, each with 
its own organization and its own methods of rais- 
ing revenues. The supreme governing" bodies of 
these districts are called levee boards. They con- 
sist of one or more members from each county in 
the district. They are armed with a good deal of 
authority, with power to impose taxes up to a cer- 
tain limit, to condemn lands, and to exercise all 
functions incidental to the building and main- 
tenance of levees. They elect their own ofiicers 
and fix their own rates of salaries. 

The territory embraced within these districts 
are mutually dependent on the levees of the 
other. The lower district would be partially over- 
flowed by breaks in the upper; and certain counties 
of the upper district lie behind those of the lower, 
and would be afliected by any breaks in the levees 
of the latter. Attempts have been made to con- 
solidate the whole administration in the hands of 
one board, but serious obstacles have been found 
to exist in the diflferent rates and manners of tax- 
ation of the two districts, their debts and a diver- 
sity of local interests. So far, very little practical 
inconvenience has been found in the division of ter- 
ritory, the two organizations having worked to- 
gether very harmoniously. 

There is a great diversity in the soils composing 
the alluvium of the Mississippi valley, and three 
or four qualities are likely to be encountered in 
the construction of a single levee — nay, even to be 
intermingled in the same bank. It is often verv 



difficult to decide which is the prevailing quality, 
much more to decide in advance, for the guidance 
of assistant engineers and contractors. In this un- 
certainty it has very commonly been the practice 
to build levees by a rough rule, supposed to be 
safe in the average of soils, of making the base 
of each slope, front and back, three times the 
height. The total base of the levee will thus be 
six times the height, plus the width of the crown, 
usually eight or ten feet. Levees of these dimen- 
sions will generally stand, with water to the very 
top, even in soils weaker than the average. Neither 
is it a great waste to give the same proportions to 
embankments built of stronger material, to wit, 
of "buckshot" clay, if put up loosely with wheel- 
barrows and exposed to the pressure of the water 
while yet "green," for such l^anks are very porous 
and apt to leak and slough if of inadequate dimen- 
sions. Still another reason for a broad base will be 
given in the sequel. In the absence, then, of defi- 
nite reasons to the contrary, levees have usually 
been built with slopes of three to one. 

Where there is great exposure to the action of 
winds and waves these dimensions are modified, 
the outer or front slope being made flatter and the 
inner slope steepened or not, according to circum- 
stances. It has not usually been found good pol- 
icy to make the back or land slope very steep, for 
fear of sloughing. After completion the whole 
work is sodded with Bermuda grass, which puts 
out lateral runners, taking root at the joints, and 
thus spreads rapidly, covering the slopes, in a 
year's time, with a thick mat of sod. 

When a water works engineer is called upon to 
build an embankment for a reservoir, the first thing- 
he looks to is his foundation. Though his dam 
be never so massive and tight, it avails him noth- 
ing unless it rests upon a secure bed. The levee 
engineer has seldom been able to take the same 
precautions. In the first place, the}' are not so 
obligatory. The water does not usually stand 
very high against his embankments, nor does it 
remain there the year round. He has an ample 
base. Experience had not formerly been under- 
stood as indicating the necessity of devoting spec- 
ial attention to foundations. In short, a good 
bank placed on the natural soil has been thought 
sufficient. Usually, indeed, the means have not 
been forthcoming for any refinements of engineer- 
ing. The urgent demand has been for earth, and 
more earth, piled higher and higher and yet higher 



80 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



as the system neared completion. The experience 
of 1897 seemed to teach that the principal danger 
to be apprehended was that of the actual over- 
topping of the levees, and of course the principal 
efforts have been made with a view of avoiding 
this imminent peril. With the advances in levee 
building, however, the more perfect confinement 
of floods and the new constructions on lower 
ground, caused by the caving of banks, the levees 
have had to stand a great deal more water than 
formerly. 

To provide an absolutely secure foundation in 
the variable soil of the Mississippi bottom without 
incurring enormous and ruinous expense seems al- 
most impracticable. Yet resort may be had to 
expedients that promise a practical assurance of 
safety. It has long been customary among levee 
builders, before commencing the construction of 
the embankment, to dig a ditch three or four feet 
deep parallel to the general line of the levee and to 
fill it with well tamped clay or strong loam. Such 
a trench is called a "muck ditch." By some ety- 
mologists this is supposed to be a corruption of 
"mock ditch," but I am not aware of any evidence 
to support the hypothesis. Usually the dimen- 
sions given to this feature have been insignificant 
and its effect correspondingly small. It might, 
however, be rendered an important safeguard by 
making it six or eight feet deep and correspond- 
ingly wide and paying especial attention to the 
tamping, thus increasing the length of the route 
to be traveled by the percolating water, and by 
giving additional height and weight to the colunm 
of mixed earth and water that has to sustain, on 
the land side, the upward pressure proceeding 
from the weight of the external water. Given a 
levee ten feet high, with no muck ditch, and a 
water-bearing stratum two feet below the surface, 
we have a pressure of ten feet of water on the out- 
side with only a weight of two feet of earth to 
offset it. But put a foundation of six additional 
feet beneath this levee, and we have sixteen feet 
of water offset by eight of earth, which is 



much better. Moreover, twelve feet more of fric- 
tional resistance have been introduced. Other im- 
portant auxiliaries are increased width of berme on 
the outside and a banquette, as it is caUed, on the 
inside, this latter being- a layer of "made earth" 
three or four feet deep and twenty or thirty feet 
wide, intended to give additional security against 
sloughing and to hold down by its weight the 
internal crust and keep it from "blowing up." 

That an earthen bank should be preserved from 
deterioration, the first and almost the only requi- 
site is that it shall be made of earth only — that is, 
that no stumps, roots or other perishable matter 
should be left in it, or immediately under it, which 
by its decay should leave cavities or conduits. That 
it may preserve its "grade" — that is, its proper 
height relative to high water — occasional repairs 
will be necessary, especially in situations where it 
is apt to settle, as in crossing the beds of old 
water-courses or the like. 

A line of levees is, of course, not level from 
Memphis to Vicksburg, but follows the fall of the 
river. Now, this fall, or slope, is about a third of 
a foot to the mile, if taken in the average. Yet 
he would be a very foolish engineer who should 
take it for granted that the rate of fall was uniform 
and should build his levees on that supposition. 
The river, in fact, is divided into pools and rapids. 
In the pools the water surface remains nearly level, 
sometimes for miles, and in the rapids the fall is 
often as much as three or four times the average. 

Levees as they actually exist do not, however, 
approximate closely to this ideal for reasons al- 
ready mentioned. It is the constant effort of those 
in charge of the different districts to bring them, 
step by step, nearer to perfection, but they are still 
far from the goal, though well within sight of it. 
Knowing their systems to be imperfect, it is with 
anxious hearts that they face great floods, for the 
chance of disaster is present every day as a possi- 
bility or probability as long as the water is near its 
height, and the period of trial is sometimes length- 
ened into months. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



81 








82 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



By CAPT. ARTHUR HIDER, Ass't U. S. Engineer 



By the Lower Mississippi river is meant that 
portion of the river between Cairo and the Gulf. 

The most suitable method to be adopted for the 
permanent improvement of the Mississippi river is 
a problem that has called for the best thought and 
study of the engineering profession, and, although 
it has not as yet been satisfactorily solved, still con- 
siderable progress has been made. 

A vast amount of valuable data has been col- 
lected and digested, experiments have been made 
with different methods and materials, these have 
been abandoned when not satisfactory for others 
promising better results and new ones substituted 
as experience dictated and the magnitude of the 
undertaking became better understood. 

Few persons, except those actually engaged in 
the work, realize the almost insurmountable diffi- 
culties that are to be overcome in a successful and 
satisfactory solution of the prol)lem. 

The stupendous forces developed by the Father 
of Waters in its course through the Valley, flowing 
through a bed of alluvium of its own formation 
from Cairo to the Gulf — a distance of upwards of 
one thousand miles — the instability of this material; 
the ease with which the banks are eroded and the 
bed scoured by the action of the current during 
high stages, frecjuently causing a complete change, 
in the position of its channel and rendering nuga- 
tory the effects of the works already constructed 
to improve it; the changes due to rapidly caving 
banks and cut-offs and the effects of the annual 
floods combine to render any system of improve- 
ment diffictdt as well as expensive in execution and 
necessarily requiring large annual expenditures for 
its maintenance and preservation. 

In considering any plan of improvement it is 
evident that it should be so designed as to apply 
to what may be considered two distinct rivers, one 
at flood or high stages and the other at low water. 
In the first instance we have a river with a dis- 
charge approximating two million cubic feet per 
second. The width of the river at high water con- 



trolled only by the distance between the levees on 
each side which are generally upwards of a mile 
apart, and a channel depth of from eighty to one 
hundred feet, with a velocity of current approxi- 
mating four miles per hour. During this period 
new bars are built up or existing ones enlarged or 
it maj^ be entirely obliterated, vast volumes of 
sand, a large portion of which is eroded from ad- 
jacent banks, are transported and deposited form- 
ing new bars or adding to those already existing; 
these as the river falls to its lowest stages become 
obstructions to the channel navigation. 

At low stages we have a discharge of from one 
to two hundred thousand cubic feet per second, a 
much less current velocity and at many points a 
shallow, narrow stream following a tortuous course 
between sand ])ars built up during the preceding 
floods. 

One of the great difficulties experienced in de- 
signing any system of channel improvement that 
shall be permanent and give satisfactory results is 
due to the fact that at high stages the conditions 
are altogether different from those existing at low 
stages. Works constructed in the river bed for 
contracting the channel and improving low water 
navigation while accomplishing the desired results, 
at ffood stages' are obstacles to the rapid discharge 
of the water as they restrict the area of the water- 
way and to that extent are detrimental, as they in- 
crease the flood heights. 

When it is considered that the oscillation of 
stage from extreme high to extreme low water at 
some points is nearly fifty feet, it will be readily 
seen that in any plan of improvement two entireiv 
different rivers, as it were, are to be considered. 

Were it possible to reduce the dift'erence of stage 
between high and low water to say twenty feet in- 
stead of fifty, the problem would be greatly simpli- 
fied. Under these conditions the river would de- 
velop a channel suitable for the approximately 
more regular discharges, the current velocity would 
be more nearly constant, the erosion and caving 



Past— Present— Prospective 



of the banks materially reduced, the channel and 
thalweg of the stream at low stages as this devel- 
oped would be subject to comparatively much 
slighter changes, thus insuring a wide, deep chan- 
nel at all stages. 

Reservoirs located near the head-waters have 
been advocated as a means of improvement of the 
lower river, designed so as to restrain part of the 
flood water and allow its dispersion at lower stages. 
This plan would no doubt be beneficial and tend to 
ameliorate to a certain extent the unfavoralMe con- 
ditions existing at low stages, could reservoirs of 
sufificient capacity be constructed and maintained. 
The magnitude of an undertaking of this kind, the 
attendant cost, the danger of dams bursting and 
the damage that would ensue, and the cost of 
maintenance, in addition to the value of the land 
necessar}' would be so great, that it is doubtful if 
this plan on a large enough scale to give practical 
results will ever be undertaken. 

So far as the prevention of floods in the lower 
river is concerned it should be borne in mind that 
these are general!)' caused \)v heavv local rains in 
the ^"icinity of the main river or from floods in the 
tributaries. Reservoirs near the head-waters would 
have little efl^ect in the lower river on floods, as 
these are usually produced by floods in the Ohio 
and its tributaries and the tributaries of the Mis- 
sissippi river that empty into the river below Cairo. 

Outlets have had their advocates, but the opin- 
ion of the ablest engineers who have studied and 
investigated this subject is that the action of out- 
lets afl^ords no permanent relief and they do not 
recommend their use, as the eft'ect is to bring on a 
gradual deterioration and shoaling of the channel 
and for this reason they would be detrimental to 
navigation in the end. 

A large measure of success has been obtained 
in improving low water navigation by the use of 
contraction works. As an experiment two reaches 
were taken by the Mississippi River Commission 
for a trial of this class of work. Plum Point Reach, 
about sixty miles above Memphis, Tenn., and 
Lake Providence Reach, about the same distance 
above Vicksburg, Miss. These reaches were se- 
lected on account of having the least deptli of 
water over the shoals of an}' on the lower ri\-er, 
and as presenting the greatest obstacles to naviga- 
tion during low water. 

The contraction works as constructed essentially 
consisted of a series of permeable pile-dikes, with 



wattling of ])rush between the piles, the foots ot 
the dikes protected by willow brush mats to pre- 
\-ent scour. These dikes were built out from the 
shore or on sand bars in shoal water, sometimes in 
series, to deflect the flow and concentrate it at low 
stages in the low water channel and at the same 
time to accelerate the building up of the bars 
where necessar_y to better define the low water 
channel Isetween them. 

^Vhile generally cjuite satisfactory results were 
obtained in both reaches so far as the improvement 
of the low water channel was concerned, and it was 
found practicable to modify by their use the direc- 
tion of the river channel from one side of the river 
to the other, as was done on the Lake Providence 
Reach at Stack Island, and also by means of these 
dikes to hasten the filling up of the Island Chutes, 
still the works themselves were not permanent, 
the Cottonwood piles and willow wattlings of which 
they were constructed rapidly deteriorating, as the 
dikes were exposed during low stages, at the same 
time many of these dikes were built on sand bars 
which were liable to be undermined and destroyed 
after the floods by a change in the channel. The 
obstructions formed by these dikes to the free dis- 
charge of the ri\'er at higher stages was also ob- 
jectionable as reducing the area of the river bed. 

The method of improving the navigable channel 
at low water now adopted, is dredging, and while 
this can hardh- Ix' claimed as a permanent low 
water improvement, the work done has been of 
great benefit to navigation. This has been fully 
demonstrated by the work done in the last two 
years. 

Under the direction of the Mississippi River 
Commission, who have charge of the improvement 
of the river, a number of powerful h\'draulic 
dredges have been constructed with the necessary 
tenders, tow boats and appliances, to move rapidly 
from place to place where their services might be 
required to dredge out channels to aid navigation. 

This immense plant can be rapidly distributed 
at anv points where work is necessary and the last 
season's work has demonstrated the fact that in a 
few davs the shoals across a bar can be ra])idly 
removed and safe passage insured with but little 
delay to navigation. 

The ad\-antage of this method over contraction 
work is that results can be obtained at once, the 
difliculties to navigation ameliorated or removed 
while at the same time the river bed is left free of 



84 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



any obstructions that would interfere with the 
rapid discharge of the river at flood stages. 

These dredges are of the latest design, have 
many novel featvu"es, are of enormous capacity and 
capable of moving an immense quantity of material 
in an almost incredible short space of time. 

One of the greatest difftculties to be overcome 
in any plan looking to the permanent improvement 
of the river is to provide for the stability of the 
banks and thus prevent the continued changes 
in the bed of the river. These changes are con- 
stantly occurring. The banks in the concave bends 
are being undermined and eroded by the action 
of the current and caving into the river; the ma- 
terial being swept away and deposited on some 
shoal near the vicinity or carried still further on 
to add to already existing bars or to form new 
ones. 

The greatest activity of caving generally occurs 
immediately after a long continued flood, during 
or after a rapid decline, although rapid caving of- 
ten takes place during low stages. In some bends 
the river rarely caves except at high water, in 
others the caving takes place at medium and low 
stages. 

This caving is due primarily to the action of the 
current deepening the river bed near the bank by 
erosion, rendering the upper bank too steep to re- 
tain its slope when the support of the water is with- 
drawn as the river falls; from the displacement of 
an under strata of cjuicksand in the bank, which 
leaves void and allows the bank to settle bodily; 
or from the effect of drainage through the pervious 
material of which the bank is composed; any one, 
or a combination of these causes may induce cav- 
ing. 

Two distinct methods of bank protection have 
been employed to render the bank stable and pre- 
vent caving — spur dikes and detached or contin- 
uous revetment. 

The essential features of the spur dikes as con- 
structed are: a foundation mattress and cribs built 
of willow brush and poles, or a combination of wil- 
low brush and sawed lumber; the cribs being placed 
at right angles to the bank line, and superimposed 
on each other so as to give an approximately reg- 
ular slope from deep water to the bank above water. 
The grading to a uniform slope of the bank im- 
mediately behind the dikes and for some distance 
above and below, covering the- same with a light 
brush revetment which is held in place by stone rip- 



rap. In the latter constructions the brush revet- 
ment was omitted, as it was found' to deteriorate 
rapidly, and in its place a greater thickness of stone 
was used. 

The method in detail of the construction of the 
cribs and mattresses were somewhat different in 
the upper part of the river to those employed in 
the New Orleans harbor. 

Those built at Columbus, Memphis, Helena and 
Greenville were composed almost entirely of willow 
poles and brush. The foundation mat had a length 
of about two hundred feet along the bank, and ex- 
tended out into the river beyond the foot of the 
bank from two hundred and fifty to four hundred 
feet, depending on the depth of the water. The 
aim being to reach out into or beyond the deepest 
water wherever practicable. These sills or founda- 
tion mats were from ten to twelve inches in thick- 
ness, made by weaving the brush on willow poles 
spaced about eight feet apart, the whole construc- 
tion securely held together by wire, spikes, iron 
rods and wire cable. On top of the mat was placed 
one or two tiers of poles laid transverse and cross- 
wise, dividing the mat into a series of stalls or 
pockets to hold the stone ballast, with which the 
mat was sunk in place, when the bottom slope of 
the river was steep. 

This form of mat, known as the woven mat, has 
been superseded by the fascine mat which contains 
a great deal more material, is more pliable, strong- 
er, and has given much more satisfactory results, 
a description of which will be given later. 

The top cribs of the spurs were usually eight feet 
wide and from five to seven feet in height, the next 
tier underneath sixteen feet wide, each tier towards 
the bottom increasing in width sixteen feet so as 
to allow for an off-set in each tier on each side of 
eight feet. The length of these cribs depended on 
the shape of the bottom, so that when finished the 
upper edge of the spur had a fairly regular slope of 
between three and four to one. The cribs ex- 
tended up the slope a considerable distance, in 
some cases to the top of the bank. Each sill or 
foundation mat was made in one piece on boats 
specially designed for the purpose and launched 
into the water as built at the point where it was 
to be sunk, I^eing held by mooring lines or cables 
to the shore; these were removed after the mat was 
in place on the bottom. The cribs were formed on 
the same liarges and wiien about half finished 
launched off of the barges and finished in the water. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



85 



The bottoms of the cribs were formed of layers 
of brush placed alternately, lengthwise and cross- 
wise, the frame work was generally made of willow 
poles, spaces or pockets being left in the body of 
the cribs to hold the stone ballast with which they 
were loaded in order to sink them in place. The 
whole construction was well bound and fastened 
together with iron rods, wire, spikes, and wire 
cables. 

These spurs were designed to protect the por- 
tion of the bank immediately in front, and by in- 
du-cing a fill or deposit between them protect the 
intermediate space. The spurs were placed gener- 
ally about five hundred feet apart, the distance be- 
tween them being dependant somewhat on the 
configuration of the bank, depth of water and ve- 
locity of current. 

In constructing the sills in the New Orleans 
harbor the mats were made in several sections 
and of greater thickness, the sections afterwards 
joined and fastened together to form the founda- 
tion mat. A greater proportion of sawed lumber 
was used in building the cribs, and instead of iron 
tie-rods and bolts, wooden stanchions were used. 

Plans showing the details of construction used 
in building spurs at Greenville and New Orleans 
were given at length in the report of the Missis- 
sippi River Commission for the year 18SS. 

While the action of spurs has not been alto- 
gether satisfactory as a revetment, they have re- 
quired but little repair. The upper four dikes of 
the original ten dikes built in Greenville in 18S7, 
as well as the two above these, built in 1SS9, were 
destroyed by the caving back of the bend above, 
allowing the river during the high water of 1891 
to form a channel between the shore ends and the 
bank. The bank recession at this locality in three 
months was from two hundred and fifty to nine 
hundred feet, at present the main river is between 
where these dikes were and the present shore line 
on the Mississippi side. 

The defect of spurs as a revetment for bank pro- 
tection is the under-cutting near their outer ends 
and the undermining due to the eddy action set 
up between them, in a great many cases necessi- 
tating the placing of revetment between the dikes 
to prevent the caving extending back so as to en- 
danger the shore ends of the spurs. 

On another page is a view of one of the dikes in 
process of construction at Greenville, and is a fair 



representative of the manner of construction used 
in the upper parts of the river. 

The cost of bank protection by spurs placed five 
hundred feet apart would be about twenty dollars 
per lineal foot, or about two-thirds the cost of con- 
tinuous revetment as now constructed. The cost 
of the spurs built at Greenville was approximately 
ten thousand dollars each. 

The lower six dikes, built in 1887 at Greenville, 
are still intact; the upper six. as before noted, were 
destroyed by the caving back of the bend above 
flanking their shore ends. The dikes below Mem- 
phis have served the purpose for which they were 
constructed and at the other points are stated to 
have given fairly satisfactory results. 

In 1888 a system of detached revetment consist- 
ing of patches of continuous woven mat revetment 
eleven hundred feet long, separated by intervals of 
unprotected bank, three hundred feet, four hun- 
dred feet and five hundred feet long was tried at 
Plum Point Reach. This was only partially suc- 
cessful as the bank caved away in the spaces be- 
tween the mats ultimately doing great injury to 
the part of the bank which had been revetted. 

The method of protecting a caving bank by 
continuous revetment as now generally followed, is: 

First. To grade the upper bank to a practically 
uniform slope of from three to four to one. This 
is usually done before the mats are constructed, 
although in some instances it has been found ad- 
visable to do the grading afterwards on account of 
the character of the material. This grading is 
usually done by a hydraulic grader especially de- 
signed for the purpose with powerful pumps, forc- 
ing water at one liundred and sixty pounds pres- 
sure through a line of four-inch hose and discharg- 
ing through a nozzle from one and one-half to one 
and three-quarters inches in diameter directed 
against the steep bank. Usually the banks can be 
brought to a fairly uniform grade by this means, 
but in some cases where the material is fine sand 
or silt, the slope gullies badly and large holes are 
washed out b)' the force of the stream, which re- 
quire filling. Scrapers and shovels are used for this 
purpose and for smoothing" the irregularities left 
by the grader. The top of the banks is from thirty 
to forty feet above low water and in many cases 
with a very steep slope, in fact nearly vertical; to 
bring these banks to an even grade requires the 
removal of from ten thousand to fifteen thousand 
cubic yards of material every one hundred lineal 




;> , ,U !■'_-'.=< ". til, . 
1 ' .„...'«^ 



CONSTRUCTING SUBMERGED SPUR. 





FASCINE MATTRESS COMPLETED. 



BUlLDlNGiFASCINE MATTRESS. 




TYING ENDS OF LEVEE TO PREVENT WIDENING OF BREAK. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



87 



feet of bank. The bulk of this material can be 
cheaply and expeditiously moved by this method 
of grading and if the material is suitable the grade 
is left smooth and even. 

When the under-water slope is very steep it 
sometimes happens that the bank caves after being- 
graded before the foot of the under-water slope can 
be protected by a, mattress. 

Plates Al and 'A2 show a b?mk of this class in 
the process of caving. This instance occurred in 
the writer's experience in front of Green\'ille, Miss. 
About one thousand lineal feet of bank had been 
graded at a very considerable expense with scrap- 
ers and shovels, as it was not deemed advisable to 
use the hydraulic grader on account of the prox- 
imity of the main levee which it was feared might 
be injured. The slope had nearly been finished 
when suddenh', without warning, the bank began 
to cave, and in a few minutes the entire graded 
portion caved into the river,- nearly swamping the 
grader and rendering necessary the regrading of 
the entire slope. 

Second. After the upper bank has been brought 
to a uniform slope the next step is the construction 
of the mattress which is to form the subaqueous 
re\'etment. These mattresses are from two hun- 
dred to three hundred feet wide and of varying 
lengths, depending upon locality, depth and veloc- 
ity of current and stage of water. The usual 
lengths are from six hundred to twelve hundred 
feet. 

The old style of wo^'en mat, which has hereto- 
fore been used, has been discarded and replaced 
with the fascine, type during the past few years, on 
account of its greater pliability allowing it to bet- 
ter adjust itself to changes in the bottom, and its 
greater ci.impactness and thickness affording Ijettcr 
protection against scour. A description of build- 
ing fascine mats in the Third District is given be- 
I0W3 and in all except some minor details will 
answer as a general description of this class of 
work on-the river. 

These mattresses are constructed of willow brush 
and poles,' the dimensions of the brush are from 
two to four inches at the loutts, and from thirty to 
fifty feet long, and of the poles from three to six 
inches in diameter at the butts and from thirt}- to 
thirty-three feet in length. 

This material is cut on the sand bars and banks 
of the river, loaded on barges and transported to 



the site of the work where it is made into fascines 
forming the mattresses. 

The dimensions of the fascines are from twelve 
to fifteen inches in diameter when completed and 
in place in the mat, each fascine being continuous 
across the entire width of the mat. 

The fascines are made and put together on mat 
boats, ^ or weaving barges, specially designed -for 
the purpose. These boats are one hundred and 
sixty feet long, thirty-eight feet wide and five feet 
deep. Two boats are lashed together, end to end, 
making practically a single boat three hundred and 
twenty feet long, skids eight feet apart are con- 
structed across these boats above the deck, these 
ha\-e an inclination of one on four to allow the 
mattress to slide oiT readily when being launched. 
The skids extend out beyond the side of the boat 
fourteen feet, so that the ends of the skids are 
about at the water's surface, and the change in 
direction of the completed portion of the mat on 
the water and that lying on the skids is not abrupt. 
Behind the skids a platform is constructed abo\'e 
the deck of the mat boat on which the men stand 
while making the fascines, the material being deliv- 
ered on barges moored to the lower side of the mat 
boat convenient for handling. 

At the end of'each skid at the platform iS an iron^ 
voke in which the fascines are formed, pivoted so 
as to swing back when the fascine is finished, and 
allow the fascine to slide down tlie skids to be in- 
corporated in the mat. , 

Under the, platform at each ski(l are placed reels 
of wire strand which form the bottom cables, these 
underneath cables extend under the mat the full 
length of the mat in one continuous length. 

The general dimensions of the bottom cables are 
five-sixteenths inches in diameter, five-eighths 
inches being used near the outer edge and at in- 
tervals through the outer one-half of the mat, 
three eight-inch cables are used in place of the 
five-sixteenths to give additional strength in strong- 
currents. '■ 

The wire strand used is composed of galvanized 
steel wire annealed, the five-eights.-inch cables hav- 
ing nineteen wires to the strand and the smaller 
sizes seven. In fastening the sewing cables to the 
longitudinal cables clips or clamps are used every 
ten feet. 

The silicon bronze wire used for binding the 
poles to the fascines is No. 9, and the galvanized 
wire used for other fastening is No. 12. 



8S 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




Past— Present— Prospective 



89 



tt£ 'JMP!S^'~ 














I' 



o 
u 



V 



^; 






90 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



In building a fascine mat the head of tlie mat is 
first constructed. This consists of a header which 
is formed of large poles built in the form of a fas- 
cine from two to two and one-half feet in diameter, 
securely spiked and Ijound together with wire and 
cable; a second header is built about six feet below 
this, around both these headers are the straps to 
which are fastened the shackles or head cables that 
hold the mattress in place during construction and 
sinking. These straps are tive-eights-inch strand, 
one double strap tq each head cable, the distances 
between the head cables vary from eight feet at the 
outer edge to sixty or even eighty feet inshore, 
depending on the depth of water and velocity of 
the current. 

The head of the mat is Iniilt on the mat barges 
and held up I)y slip lines on the mooring barges 
which are placed at right angles to the shore. 

The mooring barges are held in position by lines 
and cables fastened to the shore, and the mat itself 
is held in place during construction by independent 
wire cables one inch in diameter passing under the 
mooring barges to other fastenings on shore; the 
length of these head cables var)- from eight lum- 
dred to fourteen hundred feet, depending on the 
configuration of the jjank; their number depending 
on length of mat, velocity of current and stage of 
water. 

The method of building fascines is to lay the 
brush in the yokes as it is taken from the material 
barges, care being used to distriljute the butts and 
reverse the direction of the brush so that the fas- 
cine will be of uniform strength. When the yokes 
are filled the fascine is held loosely together by 
passing around it a No. 12 wire at intervals of 
about fifteen or twenty feet, the yokes are swung 
back by levers that operate a number of yokes at 
once and the fascine slides dow n the skids to be in- 
corporated in the mat. The sewing cable, one-quar- 
ter inch in diameter, is then passed over the fas- 
cine, then down and under it and around the bot- 
tom cable and up again between the fascine and 
the one already finished in the mat. A set of blocks 
is then attached to the sewing cable and the cable 
hauled taut, the brush in the fascines being at the 
same time compacted by pounding with wooden 
mauls. The sewing cable is then fastened to the 
fascines with staples, or clamped to the bottom 
cable to hold the strain until another fascine is put 
in place. The sewing cable is clamped to the bot- 
tom cable at intervals of ten feet as the mat is 



built, so that the fascine cannot slip apart. This is 
continued until the mat is of the desired length. 

Occasionally to give additional strength cables 
of three-eighths or five-eighths inch strand are laid 
on top of the mat, these strands are fastened 
to the level of the mat similar to the under 
neath cables and clamped to the weaving 
strand. After twenty or twenty-five feet of the 
mat has been finished on the skids, it is 
launched by releasing the tension on the under 
cables, which are wound on reels underneath the 
platform and held taut by brakes, and slacking the 
dropping lines fastened to the mooring barges and 
mat boats. These lines are two inches in diameter, 
one at each end and one in the middle. Longi- 
tudinal lines of poles are placed on top of the mat 
eight feet apart and are wired to t^he mat wiLii 
silicon bronze wire at intervals of from eight to ten 
feet. The poles are not spliced so as to allow of 
greater pliability to the mat. On top of the longi- 
tudinal poles a series of poles are placed trans- 
verse, extending from the outer edge of the mat in 
towards the shore a distance of from thirty to fifty 
feet. These are securely wired and spiked to the 
under poles and form cribs or pockets to prevent 
the stone from sliding off the mat where the un- 
der-water section of the bottom is steep. After 
being completed the mat is ballasted by evenly 
distributing from stone barges moored along the 
outside of the mat a sufficient quantity of stone to 
destroy the bouyancy of the mat and submerge it 
nearly to the water's surface; this stone is usually 
distributed with wheelbarrows, about one hundred 
pounds per square yard of stone is usually required 
for this purpose. When this has been done addi- 
tional stone is thrown on the head of the mat from 
the mooring barges to sink it sufficiently to allow 
loaded barges of stone to be floated across the mat 
immediately below the mooring barges. These 
barges are then lashed together, end to end, ex- 
tending across the full width of the mat, and al- 
lowed to drift down over the mat, being regulated 
by dropping lines from the mooring barges, a 
large force of men on the barges at the same time 
rapidly throwing off stone on the partially sub- 
merged mat until it sinks to its place on the bot- 
tom. Each mat as it is constructed, overlaps the 
preceding one from fifteen to twenty-five feet. 

After the mat is in place the mooring cables 
are unfastened from the head of the mat, the moor- 
ing barges shifted to a new position and the pro- 



Past— Present- 

cess is repeated until the whole length of bank to 
be revetted is covered. 

Third. The upper bank slope above low water, 
which has previously been iDrought to a uniform 
grade, is then covered with stone rip-rap closely 
laid by hand, the thickness of the covering varying 
from six inches, where not exposed to strong cur- 
rents, to ten inches in more exposed places. 

The construction and sinking of these large mat- 
tresses at times present many difficulties. The 
principal danger of loss or disaster in sinking is due 
to a sudden rise in the river which l)rings down 
great ciuantities of drift. This accumulates under 
the mooring barges and the mat itself inducing 
excessive strains on the mooring lines and the mat. 

Mats have been torn apart from this cause and 
lost. When it is considered that some of the larger 
mats contain more than eight acres of material, 
the difficulty of holding this mass in a current of 
between three and four miles per hour, and sinking 
it safely to the bottom with a depth of water from 
sixty to eighty feet, some idea of the magnitude 
and risk of the undertaking will be understood. 

The average quantity of material required for a 
lineal foot of bank revetment, with a sub-aqueous 
mat three hundred feet wide of the fascine type, 
and the upper bank slope paved with ri[)-rap from 
six to ten inches in depth, is as follows: 

Brush, per lineal foot 5.0 cords 

Poles, per lineal foot 0.2 cords 

Wire cable and wire strand T4.0 pounds 

Wire spikes 0.2 pounds 

Wire staples O.-t pounds 

Galvanized wire 11.0 pounds 

Silicon bronze wire T.O pounds 

Cable clamps 1.5 pounds 

Stone . . 0.5 cu. yds. 

The cost per lineal foot of the completed work 
may be taken as about $30.00. 

The excessive cost of this class of work has 
necessarily limited its general use, and until some 
cheaper plan is devised this method of protection 
will no doubt be confined to the most important 
points and used as a protection to important levees 
situated near the river banks, to prevent cut-offs; 
and the caving in front of the towns and cities. 

Below is given the plant required for a large 
party engaged in this work, capable of completing" 



-Prospective 91 

in one low water season (about seven months), 
from nine to ten thousand lineal feet: 

Number and Designation. Value. 

2 tow boats $ 80,000.00 

1 harbor boat or tug 8,000.00 

5 boats for men's quarters 20,000.00 

i mat boats 20,000.00 

4 mooring barges 10,000.00 

30 material barges 90,000.00 

i fuel boats 8,000.00 

2 hydraulic graders 40,000.00 

20 skiffs and yawls 1,000.00 

Tools and mess outfits 5,000.00 

Total $288,000.00 

The revetment for the protection of caving 
banks since its inception has shown a continual 
and gradual increase in the thickness and width, 
beginning with short, narrow mats of one hundred 
feet or so in width, of slight structure, until at the 
present the widths of the standard mats are from 
two and one-half to three times the width of those 
first constructed, often a thousand feet or more in 
length and containing more than twice the quan- 
tity of material. 

The latter mats are the largest and most sub- 
stantial of any built and used for river improvement 
in the world, and their successful construction and 
manipulation in sinking has come from the skill 
and knowledge derived from years of experience. 

While always successful to a certain extent in 
accomplishing the purpose for which they were de- 
signed, they are all subject to an attack along their 
outer edges, and through the body of the mats. 
In strong currents the effect has been to counter- 
mine tlieir outer edges, or even scour through the 
mats themselves. 

To provide against serious injury from these at- 
tacks it was found necessary to more than double 
the thickness and width of the mats as originally 
Ijuilt and also to make them more pliable, so that 
they would more readily adjust themselves to 
changes in the bottom. These requirements have 
led to the development of the present fascine type 
of mattress alio\'e described, which ma}' be taken as 
perhaps the best and strongest mat of this class 
yet devised for revetment purposes. 

It is not the intention of this paper to discuss 
the merits of levees as adjuncts to channel im- 
provement. 



92 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 



The effect on the low water channel of confining 
the flood waters between levees is a subject that 
has not been thoroughly investigated and upon 
Avhich we have comparatively little data. 

Levees, by increasing the heights of the natural 
banks of the river and confining the flood discharge 
between them and increasing the velocity of cur- 
rent, have the effect of enlarging the high water 
channel, and at the same time the result of con- 
fining the discharge within narrower limits, while 



increasing the depth of water also increases the 
height of the flood. 

The great benefit of levees is in protecting the 
valley from annual inundations and facilitating nav- 
igation and commercial intercourse during the 
time of floods by providing artificial banks. The 
levee system is being gradually perfected and as 
the work approaches completion we shall have 
less and less of disastrous floods on the Lower Mis- 
sissippi. 




SOME OF THE MEN WHO BUILD LEVEES ON THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI -A GROUP AT A "LEVEE LETTING" AT GREENVILLE, MISS. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



93 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER— WHAT IT NEEDS AND WHY 

IT NEEDS IT 



By smith S. leach, Maj. Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



The popular conception of the Mississippi river 
is that it is simply a stream of water; that its chan- 
nel is nothing more than a containing vessel, ob- 
livious of its contents; that its floods are only the 
spilling out of a portion of the water at times when 
the vessel is too small for its purpose, and that the 
remed}' for such an overflowing river is the same 
as for an overflowing tub. 

The Mississippi is a stream of water, to be sure, 
but it is very much more than that. The water 
carries in suspension a varying but always consid- 
erable quantit}' of sediment. Its channel is a plas- 
tic conduit, formed by the river itself, and as sen- 
sitive to its demands as a mother to the caress of 
her child, undergoing incessant changes in response 
to the moods of the current. These changes, so 
far as they afl'ect the capacitj' of the channel to do 
its work, are of two kinds, one of which makes the 
bed larger and is beneficial, while the other makes 
it smaller and is detrimental. Both depend upon 
the ability of the water, considered as a vehicle, to 
carry the sediment, considered as its load. The 
vehicular power of the water is derived solely from 
the fact that it is in motion, and the best index of 
this power is the amount of motion as represented 
in the velocity. Changes which make the channel 
larger are caused by the moving water taking up 
material from the bed and carrying it away and are 
the result of accelerated velocity. Changes which 
make the channel smaller are caused by a portion 
of the sediment in suspension being deposited on 
the bottom and are the result of diminished veloc- 
ity. The conditions of the problem are so infinitely 
various that no exact relation has been or can be 
established between the velocity of flowing water 
and its sediment-carrying power. But thousands 
of concordant observations demonstrate that no 
matter with what velocity the river is flowing, and 
no matter what amount of sediment it may be 
carrying, if the velocity be decreased, some of the 
sediment will be deposited. The converse of the 



proposition, though ecjually true in the aggregate, 
is more subject to exception in individual cases. 
A man is ever more ready to lay down a burden 
than to take one up, and can carry a load which he 
could not lift, and a river may be excused for man- 
ifesting a like disposition. Changes unfavoral)le 
to the efficiency of the channel being produced with 
greater facility than those favorable, the general 
tendency of the river in its natural condition is to 
deteriorate. 

The channel which the river now has is the net 
result of its present silt-transporting power. Any 
channel which it may ha\'e in the future will be the 
result of the same cause, the then silt-transporting 
power, and will be better or worse than the present 
one accordingly as the silt-moving power of the 
stream has been increased or diminished by natural 
agencies or human effort. In all questions of the 
regimen of this river and of changes in it for the 
purpose of improvement, the matter of first and 
paramount importance is the effect upon the ve- 
locity. Every scheme advanced, no matter by 
whom or for what reasons, should be at once sub- 
jected to this crucial test and made to stand or fall 
by the result. Any plan, the result of which is to 
diminish the velocity throughout a section of the 
channel, is vicious and the advantages promised by 
it illusory. Plans which tend to conserve or in- 
crease the velocity are beneficial, and any disad- 
vantages which may accompany them will be tem- 
porary. The velocity is the unerring touchstone 
which distinguishes the true metal of every ap- 
plicant for favor, which discovers an enemy in the 
flattering and boastful outlet, and discloses a friend 
in the conservative and commonplace levee. 

The escape of water from the channel of the 
river at any point or under any circumstances is 
accompanied by a reduction of velocity below the 
point of escape, and by deposits in the area of re- 
duced velocity. A steeper slope is required to 
maintain the discharge through the diminished 



94 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



cross-section, and the increased slope is oljtainable depression of flood surface proportionate to the 
onl_v by an increased height of flood surface alDO^;e amount of water taken out, and now it appears 
the obstruction. Numerous actual measureiuents that this last survi\'ing hope is shattered. The re- 
in the bed of the river preclude anj^ doubt of the lief aft'orded is so trifling as compared with the ef- 
truth of this proposition. They prove that the fort and risk of obtaining it, the efl^ect so insignifi- 
escape of water from the channel is accompanied cant as compared with its cause, that if all the evils 
by deposits below, which fact granted, the other of outlets were discredited, there would still be no 
changes stated follow as consequences of the ele- excuse for making them. A mountain in labor to 
mentary laws of hydraulics. The results have been bring forth a mouse does not surpass such a pro- 
published in detail and so widely distributed that jcct as an example of fruitless endeavor. 



persons desiring information can easily obtain 
them, and those otherwise inclined would not be 
benefited by their repetition here. One instance, 
however, of recent occurrence and of momentous 
significance will be given. 

During the flood of 1890 a crevasse in the levee 
at Nita, La., on the east bank, about CO miles above 
New Orleans, having a width of 3,000 feet and a 



The size and form of the channel are the results 
of the effort of the stream, the size determining its 
sufficiency as a flood chain, and the form its useful- 
ness as a route for navigation. That both are de- 
fective is not because the energy is lacking, but 
because it is misdirected. It has already been inti- 
mated that less energy is required to prevent a de- 
posit than to remove it after it is made. So, also. 



depth of 15 feet, Avas found by actual measurement it is far easier to maintain a channel once formed 
to have a discharge of 400,000 cubic feet per sec- than to open a new one. The river has ample en- 
ond, or 30 per cent of the entire discharge of the ergy to maintain a channel of proper navigable 



river immediately above the crevasse. As the re- 
sult of this great outlet the depression of flood sur- 
face immediately below the break, where there is a 
permanent gauge, was one and one-half feet, while 
at New Orleans, 60 miles below, it was only one 
foot, and at Plaquemine, 50 miles above, this crev- 
asse had no eft'ect at all. This case shows con- 



depth and discharging capacity if it can be made 
to work, as every agency should work to the best 
advantage and without waste of efTort. That it 
does not so work is due to the fact that the 
discharge and ele\'ation of the surface are moment- 
arily changing, and with them the positions of 
bank lines and the location and direction of the 



clusively that even the engineers who have opposed line of greatest velocity and maximum effort. No 
outlets for the reasons above set forth, have con- sooner is a sufficient channel obtained in one place 
ceded entirely too much as to the immediate relief than the current leaves it to be obliterated by de- 



posits, while the work which would have easily 
maintained it is wasted in scouring out a new and 
inferior one, or perhaps dissipated among several. 
Every mile of the river is a witness to the truth of 
this proposition, since the places where the thalweg 
is stable in position are invariably good, and those 
where it is shifting are invariably bad. No excep- 
tion to this rule can be found betwen Cairo and 



aft'orded by depression of flood surface, both in its 
amount and its extent, and have, Ijy their frank- 
ness, given unwarranted aid and comfort to the 
outlet supporters. That outlets must disappoint 
the expectations of their advocates as to the 
amount of lowering of flood surface, for a given 
volume to escape, was noted by the able pioneers 
in this subject. Generals Humphreys and Abljott. 
Lacking actual measurements, they supported the the Gulf. 

proposition by a very ingenious method of indirect What nature has failed to do, and what remains 

proof, which showed in part, but not completely, for man to accomplish in order to fit the Mississip- 
the futility of outlets as a means of flood relief, pi river to his wants and uses, is summed up in the 
In the case of this year, just cited, an actual outlet one word, control. Guide the current as the skil- 
was in operation, and all the quantities involved ful workman guides his tool, and it will not fail to 
were directly measured. It is a gigantic clinic upon car\^e out a channel commensurate in size with the 
an aggravated case of the outlet plague, and shows magnificent agency employed and worthy of the 
that as a means of inoculation against overflows the greatest of rivers, traversing and draining the most 
outlet is a distinct failure. It has long been con- fruitful and prosperous of countries, 
ceded that nothing, in the way of benefits could be The requisite control is to be obtained by a par- 

looked for from an outlet, except a temporary local tial reversal of the present relations of the stream 



Past— Present— Prospective 



95 



and its l^ecl. It has been shown that the channel 
is the ready servant, the stream the imperious mas- 
ter. The inconstant current seeks a change, and 
the subservient shore retires before it. In this re- 
spect, as regards the sides of the cliannel, the pres- 
ent relation of master and slave must be reversed. 
The servile banks must be strengthened and in- 
cited to revolt against their tyrant and to impose 
a like bondage in return. The current, no longei 
able to shift at will, devotes its energy to scouring 
out the bottom, working constantly on the same 
line and always to the best advantage. The 
stream, acting under such constraint, will mold its 
channel to the largest attainable size and discharg- 
ing capacity, and in the form best adapted to the 
needs of navigation. 

Although this is a statement of theories, it may 
not be amiss to interject a word as to practice. 
Types of structures have been evolved in the short 
exjaerience already had, which may be relied upon 
to do the work expected of them, and which can 
be constructed at reasonable cost. A caving bank 
can be protected or a secondary channel closed 
with as much certainty as pertains to tlie building 
of a road or the digging" of a canal. Moreover, 
these structures have been built at a cost which will 
allow them to be applied to the entire river with- 
out exceeding the sum which the city of Man- 
chester proposes to pay for a canal connecting her 
with deep water in the Mersey. 

Control by means of protected banks is com- 
plete and sufficient only so long as the river is 
within its banks. When it rises above their le\'el 
the control becomes partial and necessarily inade- 
quate. In years of great floods the surface of the 
water is above the natural bank level from two 
months at Cairo to six months at New Orleans. 
Without artificial restraint nearly one-third of the 
entire discharge of the river at extreme flood takes 
place outside its proper channel, as was the case in 
1882 above Vicksburg and in 181)0 above Helena. 
The proportion decreases as the bank level is ap- 
proached, but the aggregate loss of volume during 
a flood period is enormous It has been shown 
that the fundamental principle upon which the im- 
provement is based is the control of the water in 
the channel. To allow large quantities to escape, 
reaching at times one-third the whole, does vio- 
lence to ever}' idea which can possibly be associated 
with the word control. Water flowing in the chan- 
nel is the agency of improvement, and when any of 



it escapes a part of the potential goes with it, and 
a corresponding measure of the improvement is 
sacrificed. The current is to be guided so as to do 
the desired work; the more water the more cur- 
rent, and the more current the more work. \\'hen 
the volume is at a maximum the current has its 
greatest capacity for work, and will then produce 
results beyond those which it can attain at anv 
other time. To secure the greatest possible im- 
provement of the channel it is necessary that the 
greatest attainable volume of water be made to 
flow through the channel. That this condition is 
not realized when a large volume is escaping over 
the sides needs but to be stated to be conceded. 

The necessary control of the current beyond that 
produced by the natural banks, reinforced In' pro- 
tective works, is eft'ected by means of artificial em- 
bankments placed on the shores, and of sufficient 
height to restrain the highest floods. Logicallv 
they should follow the shape of the banks, and in 
practice they do so as far as other and controlling- 
conditions permit. Prevention of escape is control 
in a large measure, and for that purpose levees, as 
now built, are fully eft'ective, for they limit the es- 
cape to the relatively insignificant volume con- 
tained Ijctween them and the edges of the channel. 

The difference between the effect of a given dim- 
inution of velocity in producing deposit and that 
of equal acceleration in producing scour has been 
noted. The distinction is a very important one, and 
finds a new application in this connection. It 
makes possible a great number of the improved 
channels in other waters, which have been opened 
by dredging and have then been maintained by the 
force of a current which had been powerless to ex- 
cavate them. Deposit is by its nature a gradual 
operation, requiring time for its accomplishment, 
and therefore depending on average conditions. 
Scour is a more sudden phenomenon, and largely 
depends on maximum conditions. It is a matter 
of common observation on all silt-bearing streams 
that deposits decrease rapidly in rate at higher 
levels and rarely extend above the average flood 
plane. The \'elocity, which represents the possi- 
bility of scour, increases regularly when under con- 
trol to the extreme flood level, the increment for 
the last foot of rise being as great as for any other 
foot. A mistaken analog}- with the depositing 
action has caused too much weight to be g-i\'en to 
the element of time in producing scour, and has 
given color to the idea that control of high waters 



96 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



might proper!}- cease at some stage below extreme 
flood. The utmost Hmit of channel development, 
which means the greatest measure of improvement, 
will result from the greatest intensity of the force 
which creates the channel and from no other cause. 
That greatest intensity of errosive force will result 
from the complete restraint of the greatest floods 
and from no other cause. Great floods recurring 
at intervals of several years and confined to the bed 
of the river will create a channel which but for such 
floods and such restraint never could be created. 
That channel periodically established, the lesser 
intervening floods will maintain at a size greater 
than they could themselves have produced, so that 
the degree of improvement as maintained will de- 
pend upon the magnitude of the greatest floods 
which are controlled and will reach a maximum 
only when all floods are controlled. 

In its natural condition the channel deteriorates. 
The deterioration must be stopped and a condition 
of improvement substituted. The cause of the de- 
terioration is the escape of water from the channel. 
The remedy is to remove the cause, which can 
only be done by confining the floods. The im- 
provement of the channel is to be effected by the 
control of the current. The control at all stages, 
within or above the banks, will be more effective 
if the floods are restrained. To depend upon chan- 
nel works alone is to attempt the improvement 
with the causes of deterioration in full activity, and 
is as great a waste of effort as to draw a wagon 
with the brake set. The complete restraint of 
floods stops the deterioration of the channel, and 
at the same time develops to the highest possible 
degree the forces which tend to its betterment. By 
a happy coincidence the construction of levees re- 
alizes a combination of the greatest force for im- 
provement and the least resistance to its action. 
That larger results will be obtained under these 
conditions than can be hoped for otherwise does 
not admit of a doubt. That the importance of the 
Mississippi river, the magnitude of the interests 
depending upon it, and its influence as a factor in 



the prosperity of the whole country, deserve and 
demand the most complete and perfect improve- 
ment attainable is equally certain. 

If any proposition more than another is incon- 
sistent with everything that has been stated in this 
paper, it is one which has obtained wide currency 
and on which opposition to levee building is largely 
based, that levees cause deposits in the channel 
and thereby raise the bed of the river. The votaries 
of this doctrine ignore the testimony of the Mis- 
sissippi itself, which is conclusive against them, and 
depend upon an alleged analogy with the Yellow 
river of China, about which no one knows any- 
thing, and with the Po, of which everything that 
is known refutes their hypothesis. 

Another argument against the attempt to con- 
fine the floods is that it is an impossible undertak- 
ing; that it never has been accomplished and never 
can be. The facts are that the flood of 1897 was 
the largest on record from Memphis to the Gulf; 
that it was confined between levees over the same 
distance with a loss of only one mile in 200, as 
against one in 22 in 1882, one in 35 in 1883 and 
one in 120 in 1884. If this be failure what is suc- 
cess? A reasonable man will not abandon a cher- 
ished undertaking while his resources are unex- 
hausted, and his last effort is markedly more suc- 
cessful than any previous one. 

^^^ith the advantages of levees unappreciated, 
their difficulties exaggerated and dangers asserted 
when none exist, it is small wonder that the cause 
has languished, and that its active advocates have 
been suspected of carrying their convictions and 
their purses in the same pocket. Private interest 
has compelled the residents of the Mississippi val- 
ley to study the question, and study it deeply. 
They have learned by that study that there is a 
public interest, which will be benefited jointly with 
their private welfare by the construction and main- 
tenance of a system of levees, and their appeal has 
no more sinister purpose than to secure an equit- 
able co-operation of that joint interest in the pur- 
suit of the common object. 



/>3as^^3 



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98 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





Past— Present— Prospective 



99 



"A MATCHLESS SYSTEM OF MAJESTIC WATERWAYS" 



By HON. CHARLES SCOTT, of Mississippi 



Address of Hon. Charles Scott of Mississippi as 
Permanent Chairman of Convention on the Im- 
provement of Western Waterways, Memphis, 
Tenn., November 14, 1899. 

Ladies, Geutlciucn of Ihc Coiivcntion, and Fcllow- 
Cit!::;cJis : 

As I confront this assemblage of distinguished 
American citizens, delegates from all parts of this 
imperial valley, I instinctively recall the pleasant 
fact that history is repeating itself here to-day in 
this hospitable and progressive city. Who among 
you, gentlemen, at this bare suggestion, will fail 
to recall the historic convention that met in the 
city of Memphis in 184:5? It assembled here on 
November 13 of that year, a notable gathering of 
strong and distinguished men. In the mind's eye, 
I can see them now. There they are, over five 
hundred strong; the intellectual sons of the sunny 
South, and brainy men from the golden grain fields 
of the stalwart West. Holding imperial domina- 
tion over their deliberations, I see the great South 
Carolinian, Jno. C Calhoun, gavel in hand, as he 
arises to address his peers. With countenance 
"sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought," and a 
brow plowed with the deep furrows of melancholy 
and anxious meditation, he holds his audience en- 
tranced as he gazes out from those wondrous, deep 
sunken eyes; while over all and above all shines 
the light of a majestic intellect. 

What changes, what mighty changes, ladies and 
gentlemen, have come to us and our common 
country since the great nullifier, as he was some- 
times called, rapped his gavel in Memphis fifty- 
four years ago ! 

The lone star of Texas, as you will remember, 
was then shining over a territory that still pre- 
served its autonomy as a separate and indeiJendent 
republic. Since then it has become a part of the 
resplendent galaxy of American States, brought 
there by the influence and powerful intellect of the 
wonderful man whose name I have just mentioned. 



Then could be first heard from afar the murmur- 
ings of civil discord; and in reading the proceed- 
ings of that convention one cannot fail to observe 
the extreme care of the North and the South, lest 
the one should touch the keen sensibilities of the 
other. That strife (alas ! not to be avoided) grew 
louder and louder, until it broke over this fair land 
in a most terrific struggle, which, thank God, was 
finally and forever adjusted without loss of sacred 
honor to either section. (Applause.) And now, 
my countrymen, this storm allayed, the white and 
red roses of the North and South will cling to- 
gether so long as time shall last. (Prolonged ap- 
plause.) 

But, what of the city of Memphis in those days 
of the long ago? This magnificent city, now the 
meeting place, or terminus, of twelve lines of busy 
railroads; the home of ten banking institutions of 
ample capital; the largest inland cotton market in 
the world; the largest hardwood lumber market on 
the continent; the gateway to the fertile fields of 
Arkansas and Mississippi, was then, ladies, as 
Cleopatra would have said, "in her green and salid 
days;" entertaining for the first time perhaps, a 
large gathering of distinguished strangers within 
her gates. 

But, even then — 

"Standing with reluctant feet, 
Where the brook and river meet," 
the beauteous young city gave every promise of 
the future development which has since made her, 
as one of your local orators recently said, "The 
Queen City of the A^alley, God bless her." (Ap- 
plause.) And in saying this, believe me, I intend 
no idle compliment, because from my youth up I 
have always loved and admired Memphis and her 
noble people. A Mississippian bv birth, it was my 
good fortune, years ago, to attend her public 
schools for awhile, and afterwards it fell to my lot 
to follow the proud oriflamme of her matchless 
cavalryman, Bedford Forrest, whose brave and dar- 



LofC. 



100 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



ing deeds are destined to live forever in song- and 
story. (Great applause.) 

It was doul5tless this early promise of future 
greatness whicli secured for Memphis the distinc- 
tion of entertaining the remarkahle convention 
which I have just mentioned. I trust you will par- 
don me, gentlemen, for dwelling somewhat at 
length upon that important assemblage. I do so 
because from it I think we can draw some practical 
lessons of useful wisdom. First: Let us recall the 
object of that meeting. For what did those chstin- 
guished men assemble here? What brought them 
together? In answering these questions we must 
confess that the scope of their labors was far 
broader and more dif^cult than ours. They were 
expected to discover and point out the ways and 
means for the development of the resources of all 
the Western and Southern States. Think what a 
gigantic task ! What a wide range for the imagina- 
tion ! What a broad field for the brightest and 
most aggressive intellect! And yet — and this is 
the point I desire to make with you, gentlemen of 
the Convention — when boiled down by the great- 
est analyst ever known to a long and brilliant line 
of American statesmen, it resolved itself at last 
simply into 

A QUESTION OF CHEAP AND RAPID TRANSPORTATION. 

If there was one characteristic above all others, 
saving alone the rugged and unswerving integrity 
of his character, for which Jno. C. Calhoun was 
justlv distinguished, it was for that keen, subtle, 
penetrating power of analysis, which carried him 
straight to the heart of his subject, "on wings as 
swift as meditation, or the thoughts of love." You 
will not be surprised, then, that going like an ar- 
row to the mark, he used words, which are as preg- 
nant with meaning to-day as they were then, and 
which I now quote literally from the celebrated 
speech of Calhoun's, delivered when his eloquent 
and potential voice was last heard in this admiring 
city : 

'T approach, now, gentlemen, the important 
question: How shall we, who inhabit this vast 
region, develop its great resources? For this pur- 
pose there is one thing needed, and only one, that 
is, that we shall get a fair remunerative price for 
all that we may produce. If we can obtain such 
price, this vast region, imder the active industry 
of its intelligent and enterprising inhabitants, will 
become the garden of the world. 



"How is this to be effected? There is but one 
mode by which it can be done, and that is to en- 
large our market in jjroportion to the increase of 
production. This can be obtained only in one way, 
and that is by free and ready transit for persons 
and merchandise between the various portions of 
this vast region, and between it and the other por- 
tions of the Union and the rest of the world." (Ap- 
plause.) 

So said Calhoun. And this question of cheap 
and rapid transit for persons and merchandise is 
as important to-day as it was fifty-four j'ears ago. 
Indeed, it is the same always, yesterday, to-day, 
and forever. What is individual effort in the way 
of furnishing transportation on an extensive scale? 
It is a snare and a delusion. It is like unto sound- 
ing brass and a tinkling cymbal. The census of 
1880 gives some interesting and instructive statis- 
tics along this line. It shows, as a result of investi- 
gation, that it costs the producer to remove his 
grain by wagon from 5 to 10 mills per bushel per 
mile. Why, gentlemen, any of the railroad cor- 
porations, that it is our great American privilege 
to abuse, can, and do, move a man's grain for him 
per ton at the same price it would cost him to 
transport it per hnshcl. And with convenient and 
abundant water transportation it can in many cases 
be moved still cheaper. In short, this question of 
cheap and rapid transit is one that concerns now 
and always the prosperity of the entire country. 
You should rejoice then and be glad, oh ye dwell- 
ers of the valley, that nature has provided you with 

A MATCHLESS SYSTEM OF MAJESTIC WATER-WAYS. 

(Applause.) 

But, these rivers, aptly called by Senator Turley 
in his eloquent speech this morning, "God's eternal 
highways," are not presented to us by the hand of 
nature, as generous as she is, in perfect condition 
for commercial purposes. They need the aid of art 
and science to develop them to their fullest extent, 
and when that is done, gentlemen of the Conven- 
tion, this fertile valley will at last attain the full 
measure of its glorious destiny. (Applause.) A 
talented writer has recently called it "the heart of 
the country, its granary and its workship," and 
when our noble and magnificent water-ways are 
properly improved, as they should be, and as they 
must be, then it will become the numerical, finan- 
cial, and intellectual center of this, the grandest 



Past— Present— Prospective 



101 



nation known to ancient or modern civilization. 
(Applause.) 

How, then, is this important work to be accom- 
plished? How, gentlemen of the Convention, ex- 
cept through Congressional appropriations? And 
this brings us face to face with the practical part 
of the work of this distinguished assembly. It will 
be 3'our task to help mold public opinion, and to 
so direct the public sentiment of the country that 
when we next apply to Congress for money to im- 
prove the vast system of Western water-ways it 
will flow hitherwarcl in a copious and golden 
stream. (Applause.) 

I know it is said by some, perhaps by many, that 
"this is an inopportune time to secure government 
appropriations: that we are now engaged in a 
tedious and costly war with the Philippines for 
which enormous sums of money must go out of 
the public treasury, to the exhaustion of our re- 
sources." Now, my fellow-citizens, let me say 
right here, if it would take one cent from the suc- 
cessful prosecution of a foreign war, I for one 
would say, let our water-ways remain forever as 
they are. (Applause.) I am a Democrat. I have 
never known any other political faith, but, gentle- 
men, we are one people, one nation, and when 
we are engaged in war with a foreign foe, it is time 
for every citizen of this great republic to uphold 
the hands of the President in his wise and patriotic 
efforts to maintain the honor and prestige of the 
American flag. (Great demonstration and ap- 
plause.) But there is no scarcity of money. Bless 
you, ladies and gentlemen, ]\Iiss Columbia can 
easily spank little Aguinaldo with a slipper in one 
of her dainty hands while she signs checks with 
the other for the impro\ement of our Western 
water-ways. (Laughter and cheers.) It was only 
to-day that I noticed a telegram in the great Mem- 
phis "daily," the Commercial-Appeal, from Wash- 
ington City, alluding to the rapid growth of the 
surplus in the treasury. The writer said, among 
other things, that if it continued to grow at the 
present rate, by the 1st of September next, the 
treasury would have as a cash balance more than 
three hundred and fifty millions of dollars. Why 
not relieve the oilrcials, pray, of some of this em- 
barrassment? AVe can use $100,000,000 of it so 
quick it will make their heads swim, and every 
dollar of it will be so much bread cast upon the 



zvatcrs to return to the nation after many days. 
(Applause.) 

I know there are always objectors, and objectors 
loud and long, to these expenditures for internal 
improvements. It has been ever thus. But the 
day has passed w hen a statesman can safely bottom 
his reputation on a proposition of that kind. The 
"watchdog" business has been overdone. The fact 
is, it is now pretty well conceded that these "watch- 
dogs of the treasury," as they are sometimes called, 
are those dogs who desire to take both the meat 
and the bones for their own special districts, and 
leave the other dogs to be content with the shadow. 
(Laughter.) These "fanatics of conservatism," as 
some one, I believe Carl Schurz, as apth- called 
them, have gone down forever before a pronounced 
public sentiment, which permeates this whole coun- 
try in fax'or of a wise and progressive system of 
internal impro\'ements. Uncle Sam has concluded, 
at last, I am glad to say, to put some part of his 
money where it will do the most good, in the bet- 
terment of the country's water-ways. (Applause.) 

Now, gentlemen, I shall not presume to outline 
any part of your important labors. In all such 
matters your judgment and wisdom are your best 
and surest guides. 

You are here as the representatives of 35,000,000 
people, inhabiting a territory containing about 11 
per cent of the whole area of the United States, 
eliminating our outlying possessions. It is un- 
a\'oidable, therefore, that there should be many 
divergent interests to be considered: but, it is not 
necessary that any of these interests should clash; 
at least, to a serious extent. Harmony and co- 
operation, let me remind you, are essential to our 
success. AVe must present now, and always, an 
unbroken front to Congress, in demanding national 
aid for the AA^estern water-ways, and then we will 
not fail to get all we can reasonably desire. 

W^Tile it is unnecessary for me to go into details, 
I feel that a few suggestions may not be out of 
place. And the first thing that occurs to me is 
this : 

THE SM.-VLLER WATER-WAYS 

of the country should receive due consideration at 
your hands, and more liberal treatment at the 
hands of the general government. (Applause.) 
Many of these smaller streams, as the great Levee 
Champion, General Catchings, well said this morn- 
ine', are almost unknown outside of the committee 



102 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



room of the Rivers and Harbors Committee. And 
yet they are of vast importance to the country and 
its development. I am fully aware of the fact that 
the appropriations to the smaller streams have been 
effectively used more than once as an argument 
against the rivers and harbors bill. But, it has al- 
ways occurred to me that those streams — streams, 
for instance, like the Ouachita, the Arkansas, the 
Monongahela, the Yazoo, and hundreds of others 
— are in every way worthy of Congressional recog- 
nition. (Applause.) They are just as important 
to the people in their \icinity as is the Mississippi 
river to those who live adjacent to its banks. In- 
deed, it may be said that tJicy arc as indispensable 
as the country roads, to which they may well be 
likened, and they should l)e recognized in any in- 
telligent system which seeks to give the country 
the full benefit of its streams and rivers. 

Passing from these smaller water-ways, we are 
now to consider the great Father of Waters, and 
find it in need of help throughout its entire course. 
Commencing at the twin cities of 

ST. PAUL AND MINNEAPOLIS, 

which, year by year, are reaching out their arms, 
each to the other, until the time is not far distant 
when they will at last constitute one magnificent 
city, the pride of the great Northwest, we find the 
people there have their peculiar needs, which 
should be carefully guarded and gratified. 
Thence, coming south to 

THE MIGHTY MISSOURI RIVER, 

twenty-five hundred miles of which are said to be 
navigable, we find many problems demanding the 
attention of the general government. This noble 
stream flowing through the great grain fields of 
the Northwest, is of such overshadowing import- 
ance to all that section of our common country 
that its just demands should and will receive your 
ready and most cordial recognition. (Applause.) 
It is almost unnecessary for me to call your at- 
tention to the river in the \'icinity of 

THE SUPERB CITY OF ST. LOUIS. 

It must be evident to you from her large and 
intelligent delegation now on the floor of this 
Convention, that she will be heard from in due 
season, and her just and urgent demands for deep 
water, will, I am sure, be heartily re-echoed by 
every member of this Convention. 

The Mississippi River Commission have already 



taken vigorous steps in that direction, and the 
powerful dredges built under their inspiration, are 
the most wonderful machines in that line that have 
ever been constructed. As this fleet of dredges is 
increased as rapidly as the appropriations justify, 
and as the other plans of the river commission are 
developed to the point of consummation, you will 
see the Stars and Stripes all the way from your 
new city of Manila, if 3'ou please, carried by your 
astonished bluffs on ocean steamers of heavy ton- 
nage, as they pass onward with full cargoes to the 
great city of St. Louis. (Applause.) 

By the way, gentlemen, I digress a moment to 
pay a brief tribute to the important and valuable 
work of 

THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION, 

whose arduous and difficult labors are not suffi- 
ciently understood by the general public, I fear, to 
be properly appreciated. Let me say they are a 
body of patriotic, capable and conscientious men, 
and we should, both from the standpoint of policy 
and justice, hasten now and always to hold up their 
hands. I believe that all the difficult problems 
germane to the river and its regimen can best be 
solved under the wise and conservative manage- 
ment of a comrhission like this. And it would be 
a bad day indeed for th^ Mississippi Valley, if the 
commission was ever abolished, or its jurisdiction 
curtailed. They have done well, exceedingly well, 
and aije fully entitled to the thanks of a grateful 
people. (Applause.) 

To retttrn to my subject. What shall I say of 

THE OHIO RIVER, 

the most beautiful of all our Western streams? 

Did you ever happen to be away up the Ohio 
river, on one of its long, picturesque reaches, near 
the close of a summer's day? If so, your nature 
is more phlegmatic than mine, if your soul did not 
respond to the lieauties of the scene, as you gazed 
on its sparkling waters, and enjoyed its graceful 
and romantic shores. Why, gentlemen, the Ohio, 
I think you will readily agree with me, is entitled 
to everything she may demand. Not only by rea- 
son of the great commerce that is constantly borne 
upon her noble bosom, but because we should re- 
member that from the Ohio came the first inspira- 
tion for internal improvements. On her northern 
shore, Senator Worthington, of Ohio, the father 
of the doctrine of internal improvements, was the 



Past— Present— Prospective 



103 



first to agitate this important subject in the halls 
of Congress; while on her southern bank was his 
co-laborer, the "Great Harry of the 'West," whose 
inspired voice first successfully fought its arduous 
battles. (Applause.) I see my old friend from 
Pittsburg, Captain Dravo, joins heartily in ap- 
plauding this sentiment, and when you hear from 
him later, gentlemen, you will observe that he, 
himself, is a mighty apostle of the water-ways. 
(Laughter and applause.) 

And now, gentlemen, I approach what is to the 
dwellers of the lower valley a question of supreme 
importance. It is needless for me to say that I 
allude to 

THE RECLAMATION AND PROTECTION OF THE VAST 
ALLUVIAL FIELDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 

from the annual floods, which have cost its citizens 
countless millions of dollars. 

The fact of the business is, it is the duty of the 
government to take charge of improvements of this 
sort on the Mississippi river, for many and obvious 
reasons. (Applause.) In doing this there will be 
no undue stretch of constitutional authority. Even 
a strict constructionist like Jno. C. Calhoun, found 
abundant warrant for such wise expenditures. Not 
only are the^' fully sanctioned l^v reason and au- 
thority, but the heart of this great nation has been 
deeply touched by the manifold sufferings of the 
people of the Mississippi Valley. Besides, it is 
estimated that there are not less than 13,000,000 
of acres of fertile lands that can be reclaimed from 
the floods and brought under the plow. This 
would add as much as $200,000,000 annually to 
the business of the country, giving an impetus to 
all kinds of improvements, the importance of which 
we can scarcely estimate. 

Much has been done already in the matter under 
discussion. The levees, through the combined ef- 
forts of the government and the riparian States, 
are being made stronger and better year by year. 
This will be more thoroughly understood when I 
tell you that during the great flood of 1883 there 
were 284 crevasses, which swept away all told fifty- 
four miles of levees. In 180O there were only 
twenty-three crevasses, and the amount of levees 
destroyed was equal to only four and one-half 
miles. And since that time, even when the dykes 
were tried by higher floods, the number of crevasses 
and the consecjuent destruction to property have 
been still further reduced. This subject, gentle- 



men, is one of transcendent importance, and I 
trust will be favorably considered by the delegates 
of this Convention. (Applause.) 

Now, passing on, let us consider for a moment 
the necessities of the river below us. I think you 
will, one and all, recognize the fact that there 
should be liberal and adequate appropriations for 

THE SOUTHWEST PASS, 

This is a matter in which all parts of the valley 
are alike concerned. With the increased size of 
ocean vessels, unless the channel is deepened at 
the mouth of the river, it will be impossible to 
build up and satisfactorily care for the large export 
and import trade to which the Mississippi Valley 
is justly entitled. 

A forceful and accomplished writer, Mr. Stuy- 
vesant Fish, in his admirable address recently de- 
livered before the Industrial Commission, and al- 
ready quoted from this monnng by Senator Turley, 
showed how much less these imports and exports 
amount to than should be the case when we con- 
sider the g"eag'ra])hical position of New Orleans 
and its other ad\'aTrtages. I invite your attention 
to what Mr. Fish has to say on this subject : 

"The line of equal railroad distances to New 
York and to New Orleans, respectively, may be 
said to begin on Lake Superior, at the boundary 
between \Visconsin and the upper peninsula of 
Michigan, and, following the northern and eastern 
boundaries of Wisconsin, to pass through Chicago, 
111., run thence southeasterly through Indianapolis, 
Ind., and Bristol, Tenn., and to reach the Atlantic 
Coast, near Charleston, S. C. Every point to the 
south and west of that line is nearer by rail to New 
Orleans than to New York. It is in that part of the 
basin of the Mississippi river which lies west of 
that line that our exportable surplus of breadstuffs 
and packing house products is made, and, so long 
as water runs down hill and it costs more to move 
freight up hill, the natural tendency of that export- 
able surplus will be to reach the sea at New Orleans 
and the other Gulf ports. * " * 

"No other port in the United States is served by 
railroads reaching, under single managements, so 
far and in such varied directions into the interior 
of the continent. That those railroads ought to 
bring to and carry from New Orleans vastly more 
than they do of goods for foreign commerce, is 
shown by their gross receipts during the past year, 
from the carriage of passengers and freight, being 



104 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



$130,637,703, or thirty per cent more than the value 
of all the imports and exports of New Orleans, 
which, in turn, amounted to $100,090,537." 

The causes prohibiting a larger volume of export 
and import business are not difficult to find. He 
wlio runs ma)' read. It simply means that this 
great Southern gateway to the sea has been too 
long neglected. The truth is, the mouth of the 
river was lost sight of, commercially speaking, for 
many years, until at one time it threatened to re- 
peat the history of the River Nile, which is cut ofT, 
you know, from the sea for vessels of more than 
fifty or sixty tons burden. This neglect is surpris- 
ing in view of the fact that our leading statesmen 
have always recognized the ownership of the Mis- 
sissippi river as a matter of commanding import- 
ance. First among these statesmen was the great 
father of Democracy, Thos. Jefferson, who, always 
a strict constructionist, thought he had violated the 
letter and spirit of the constitution when he finally 
consummated the Louisiana purchase. He justi- 
fied the act on the plea of necessity, relying on the 
good sense ami patriotism of the nation to ratify 
and approve it. 

We find Benjamin Franklin also, as far back as 
1784, expressing himself on this subject in a letter 
to Mr. Jay in the very strongest terms. He said, 
in substance : 

"I would rather agree with the Spaniards to buy 
at a great price the whole of their rights on the 
Mississippi, than to sell a drop of its waters. A 
neighbor ii tight as ivell ask mc to sell my street 
door." 

And yet, after a supreme anil successful etl'ort 
to acquire this indispensable outlet to the sea, the 
government has seemed content with the mere fact 
of ownership, and for many years showed little or 
nO' inclination to enhance its benefits, or improve 
its usefulness. 

In saying that the mouth of the river has been 
neglected, I do not mean to suggest that Congress 
has been altogether unmindful of the situation. 
The Fads jetties would be enough to gainsay such 
allegation. But the jetties are inadecjuate, and the 
ever increasing commerce of the valley demands a 
depth of water sufficient for the largest seagoing 
vessels, and nothing less than that will satisfy the 
just demands of its people. (Applause.) 

I believe, gentlemen, I have now given a brief 
resume of all the matters demanding your atten- 



tion, save, perhaps, one or two. One is the im- 
portant 

CANAL WHICH IS TO UNITE THE GREAT LAKES OF 
THE NORTHWEST WITH THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

This is a work in every way worthy of your sup- 
port. I am not forgetful of the fact that the rival 
cities of Chicago and St. Louis have not agreed 
altogether about the construction of this important 
artificial water-way. But I am told that their dis- 
agreement on this and cognate subjects is, perhaps, 
a thing of the past, and judging from present indi- 
cations, I take it that peace now reigns supreme. 
I shall hope, therefore, that it will be the pleasure 
of this august Convention to adopt a strong reso- 
lution in favor of this canal. (Applause.) 

It may not be improper to say in this connection 
that we have always found the able Congressman 
from Chicago ready and willing to assist the peo- 
ple of the Lower A^alley, and those who are so 
willing to help others should, on all proper occa- 
sions, receive cordial support in turn. 

There is one other work of vast importance to 
the whole country that should have the benefit, I 
submit, of your utmost influence and most cordial 
approval. I speak of 

THE ISTHMIAN CANAL. 

Always a con\'enience, it is now a necessity. Its 
construction will bring us in closer touch with our 
recently acquired possessions in the far distant 
East. There the Stars and Stripes now proudly 
floating under an Oriental sun, will never be low- 
ered, gentlemen, in my opinion, so long as time 
shall last. (Applause.) They tell the nations of 
the world in no uncertain tones that the mighty 
republic of the West has entered on a new era, not 
of conquest, but oi usefulness, and that she is ready 
to meet, and ready to solve, all the responsibilities 
of the new environment. These late events pro- 
claim 

AMERICA A WORLD POWER, 

responsible alone to herself, her conscience, and 
her God, as to how that power will be used. (Ap- 
plause. ) 

If the great Massachusetts Senator. Daniel Web- 
ster, could now return to the scene of his many 
earthly triumphs, he might well say of his own 
country, as he once said of England : 

"Our morning drum beat, following the sim 
and keeping company with the fleeting hours, will 
circle the world with one continuous and uninter- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



105 



nipted strain of the martial music of America." 
(Great applause.) 

Destiny, my fellow-ccuntr^•men, has appointed 
us to this task. We are simply repaying a debt of 
long standing. The Old World, centuries ago, 
sent out to the New her bravest and her best; the 
devout pilgrim to the bleak shores of New Eng- 
land; the gay cavalier tO' Maryland and Virginia; 
the brave Huguenot to the coasts of the Carolinas ; 
to bring hither new life and all the blessings of 



civilization. Their descendants now repay the 
debt by infusing new blood into the stagnant veins 
of the distant East, for the mutual advantage of 
both nations, and the general welfare of all man- 
kind. (Applause.) 

But, my fellow-citizens, I am detaining you too 
long. I desire to express my profound thanks for 
the great honor you have conferred in making me 
your Chairman, and I now await the further pleas- 
ure of the Convention. (Prolonged applause.) 




STEAMER H. M. HOXIE AND SIX LOADED BARGES, 
PASSING MEMPHIS BRIDGE, THEN IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION, FEB. 17, 1892. 



106 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




Past— Present— Prospective 



107 



HIGH-WATER PROTECTION METHODS ON LOWER 

MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



By CAPT. WILLIAM JOSEPH HARDEE, City Engineer of New Orleans 



The preservation of the le\'ee line on the lower 
Mississippi river during periods of high water is 
a most important subject and is worthy of much 
thought and attention to avoid the numerous and 
costl)' mistakes which have been made in the past. 
When the method under which that character of 
Avork was done during past years is considered, it 
is most surprising that so much success was 
achieved and that the mistakes which were made 
did not prove more extensive both as to cost and 
disaster. 

Up to the present time there has been no well- 
defined organization for the systematic conduct of 
high-water protection work. The nearest approach 
to anything like systematic, intelligent and harmo- 
nious co-operation on the part of those engaged in 
such work was during the flood of 18!)T; but this 
was far from satisfactory and is susceptible of great 
improvement. 

The absence of anything like system will be read- 
ily appreciated when it is remembered that there 
are engaged in the work some six practically inde- 
pendent agencies — the district levee board, the 
Parish officials, the State officials, the LTnited 
States ofiicials, the railroad officials and the indi- 
vidual planter. At the present time not one nf 
those agencies has the available resources with 
which, alone and unassisted, to care for the levee 
line during an extraordinary flood. 

The local district levee boards are charged b}' 
law with the responsibility of preserving at ;dl 
times the integrity of their respective levee lines; 
and, except in a few instances, this charge has been 
intelligently executed; but there have been occa- 
sions when the task has vastly exceeded the re- 
sources of the several boards. 

If those boards had possessed ample means, they 
would to-day have the levee line of their respective 
districts in condition to resist successfully the big- 
gest flood so far experienced without the necessity 



for an amount of work in excess of their means. 
But they have not possessed adequate means to 
accomplish this end, and it is a fact that while the 
levees have been steadily improved, the floods of 
the past have found them in an imperfect condi- 
tion, and a great amount of work of an emergency 
character has been necessary to successfully pre- 
serve them during high-water periods. On such 
occasions the other agencies have been requested 
to assist, or they have voluntarily proffered assist- 
ance by reason of their indirect connection with 
the cause and their general interest in the work. 

It is a strange fact that each of the other fi\-e 
agencies, when rendering assistance, seemed to 
claim superior wisdom, and usually insisted, not in- 
frequently to the disadvantage of the work, on pro- 
ceeding according to its indi\'idual judgment. Con- 
fusion was the inevitable result, and from confusion 
sprung wastefulness and insubstantial work, some- 
times accompanied by disaster. 

Confusion, attended by wastefulness and insub- 
stantial work, has oftentimes been due to a lack of 
forethought or proper advance consideration. In 
some instances expensive arrangements were made 
and large quantities of perishable materials were 
provided for prospective high-water protection 
work which never materialized. On other occa- 
sions the magnitude of a flood was neither antici- 
pated nor appreciated until, figuratively speaking, 
the last minute, and then the necessary work had 
to be done hurriedly and frequently under the ad- 
verse conditions of bad weather, resulting in in- 
creased cost and less stability. 

Based on his observations and experience, the 
writer believes that, with the resources at com- 
mand, a system for economically and efficiently 
preserving the levee line during flood periods can 
be devised. 

It is not considered advisable, however, to ad- 
vocate a svstem which would involve the combined 



108 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



resources and efforts of the entire six agencies re- 
ferred to, because, depending on time and circum- 
stances, the resources of those agencies vary. A 
more practical system would l^e such a one as 
would involve one agcnc)^ only, with adequate 
means prosecuting it, and then, as occasion would 
demand, the necessary work may in advance be 
divided and certain functions allotted to the differ- 
ent agencies according to the practicability of ap- 
pl\ing the resources of each. 

The old maxim, "In time of peace prepare for 
war," applies with equal force to the preservation 
of levees. If it were practicable to do so, the levee 
line should, during low-water period, be put in sucli 
a condition that the usual cases of emergency 
which now arise would be in great pari, if not alto- 
gether, removed. It is hoped that, with advancing 
years and the continued expenditure of large sums 
of money, this happy condition will be reahzed at- 
no very distant date. 

But, taking the levee line as it stands to-dav, 
there are certain kinds of high-water protection 
work, as will be more fully described later on, in- 
cidental to every flood in excess of a stage which 
puts 3 feet or more of water against a levee. The 
full extent of protection work is, of course, gov- 
erned by the size and duration of the flood. If it 
were possible to anticipate the approximate size of 
a flood, a large amount of work could be more sub- 
stantially done and at a minimum cost. As a mat- 
ter of fact, a flood in the lower Mississippi river can 
be anticipated within reasonable limits, and far 
enough in advance of its realization to permit the 
deliberate execution of a large amount of prelimi- 
nary protection work. 

An approximate relationship exists between ad- 
jacent water gauges on the Mississippi river when 
the flood surface of that stream is not disturbed by 
crevasses or augmented by the waters from tribu- 
tary streams. For instance, a certain maximum at 
Cairo will produce a certain maximum at Memphis, 
the next prominent gauge station below. A gauge, 
however, below a tributary stream, may be affected 
by a flood poured out of the tributary, but, as there 
is an approximate relationship Ijetween a gauge so 
affected and the next gauge below, comparisonb 
may be successively carried on until the place is 
reached at wdiich a forecast is desired. The great 
bulk of the water which produces a flood in the 
lower Mississippi river is derived from the Ohio 
river and the Mississippi river itself above Cairo. 



A flood out of any of the tributary streams — St. 
Francis, White, Arkansas, Yazoo or Red — does 
not materially add to the height of a flood in the 
Mississippi. The effect of a flood from any one of 
those streams is rather to prolong the passage of 
a coincident flood in the Mississippi than to in- 
crease its height. Of course, floods poured simul- 
taneously out of all those streams or out of each 
stream at or about the time that the crest of a 
coincident flood wave in the Mississippi passed, its 
mouth would materially increase the height of the 
flood in the latter stream. But the records since 
and including 1890 do not show that such a coin- 
cidence of floods has occurred. They show, how- 
ever, that some only of the tributaries contributed 
more or less to the height and duration of the 
floods of 1890, 1892, 1893 and 1897. On the other 
hand, the Mississippi river may be abnormally de- 
pressed below the mouth of the Red river, as has 
sometimes occurred, on account of Red ri\er being 
low and a large volume of Mississippi river water 
in consequence thereof being drawn off by the 
Atchafalaya river. 

As the great floods emanate north of Cairo, that 
place can properly be considered the strategic 
point, and the Cairo gauge can be accepted as a 
fairly reliable index to what will follow on the 
lower Mississippi. A wave, such as we are con- 
cerned with, in so far as it bears on the subject- 
matter of this paper, occupies from ten to fourteen 
days in passing from Cairo to Vicksburg, so that 
we always have that much advance notice of what 
is coming. The tributaries, of course, should be 
closely obserx'cd, and proper allowance should be 
made for any influence they might exert. 

It is the writer's opinion that no damage can 
befall any of the existing levees when there is less 
than 3 feet of water against them. But at about 
the 3-foot stage the pressure is sufficiently great 
to commence developing weaknesses due to faulty 
construction, unequal shrinking or leaks caused by 
burrowing animals. It, therefore, follows that 
unless a flood in excess of that 3-foot stage is ex- 
perienced, there is no need for protection work of 
any kind; but, as soon as it is evident that the 3- 
foot or higher stage will be experienced, prepara- 
tions for a high-water campaign should be imme- 
diately begun, and conducted as the conditions 
attending the expansion of the flootl tlemand. 

The battures or foreshores vary in elevation with 
respect to the high-water surface at different places 



Past— Present— Prospective 



109 



along the river. The ground is usually higher near 
the edge of the bank than it is at the levee, so that 
a flood which covers the ground near the edge of 
the bank puts several feet of water against the 
levee. The water usually finds its way to a levee 
through depressions and drainage ditches, and, 
with few exceptions, is well against the levee be- 
fore the entire foreshore is fully overtopped. 

The following is the approximate height whicli 
will put 3 feet of water against a considerable 
length of the levee line in the vicinity of the re- 
spective gauges, though a foot or so less in height 
will put 3 feet of water against short lengths of 
levee: Vicksburg, 42 feet; St. Joseph, 38 feet; Nat- 
chez, 44 feet; Red River Landing, 42 feet; Bayou 
Sara, 37 feet; Baton Rouge, 34 feet; Plaquemine, 
29 feet; Donaldsonville, 26 feet; College Point, 23 
feet; Carrollton, 12 feet. The gauge at Fort Jack- 
son is not included, as its elevation is so often in- 
fluenced by wind and tide. 

It is now in order to ascertain what height at 
Cairo culminates in 42 feet at A'^icksburg and 42 
feet at Red River Landing. 

A comparison of fifteen gauge observations 
selected at random shows that for stages of 25 feet 
or less at Cairo the time consumed in the passage 
of the crest of a wave from Cairo to Vicksljurg 
varies from four to eight days. But as we are in- 
terested only in stages which culminate in 42 feet 
at Vicksburg, a comparison of lower stages should 
be disregarded. 

On account of the closure of St. Francis basin 
during recent years, flood waves which occurred 
prior to 1898, and which were in excess of l)ank 
full stage, should be disregarded, as they would 
prove misleading. A comparison of all the flood 
waves of consistent elevation, since and including 
the year 1894, shows that 42.7 feet at Cairo will 
culminate in 42 feet at Vicksburg, and that the 
time of passage varies from ten to fourteen days, 
a fair average being twelve days. These figures 
include an adchtion of height and prolonged time 
of passage due to augmentation by water from the 
St. Francis and White rivers, which is almost in- 
variably coincident with a flood of the elevation we 
are discussing in the Mississippi river. 

Storms which occur in the valley of the Ohio 
river usually originate west of there, and, in their 
passage, traverse the territory drained by the St. 
Francis and \A^hite rivers. 

The probable maximum height which the gauge 



at Cairo will reach may be estimated with fair 
accuracy l)v considering the gauges at stations 
north of that place on the Ohio and Mississippi 
rivers and their tributaries, so that by a series of 
deductions it is possible to secure more than twelve 
days' notice of what is to be expected, as well as to 
forecast be^'ond the 42-foot stage at Vicksburg. 

The records show that at the time of the year 
when the gauge at Vicksburg reaches 42 feet Red 
river and its tributaries are usually low, from which 
it may be safely inferred that 42 feet at Vicksburg" 
cannot be expected to culminate in more than 39 
feet at Red River Landing; the time of passage 
may be placed at two days though on an average 
it is a fraction less. 

It must, therefore, be noted that high-water pro- 
tection work of some kind will be necessary under 
the proposed system between Vicksburg and Bou- 
gere (lower terminal of the levee system of the 
lower Tensas district), before work of any kind will 
be necessary below Red River Landing. 

Ordinarily, — i. e., when the Red river and its 
tributaries are low, as is usually the case — the 
gauge at Vicksburg must read 4() feet to produce 
42 feet at Red River Landing. 

Failure of levees usually results from one of the 
following seven causes: 

1. Insufficient height, which permits the water 
to flow over the top of the levee, cutting it away. 

2. Leakage due to faulty construction; to un- 
even shrinking or sinking, or to the operations of 
burrowing animals resulting in the formation of 
cracks or holes, which, under some conditions, 
rapidly enlarge as the water flows through them. 

3. Sloughing, due principally to some defect in 
the body of the levee, which permits the water to 
percolate too freely through it, and which, being 
attended by defective drainage on the land side, 
results in the land slope becoming saturated and 
so softened that it will not stand. 

4. Sinking, the result of the levee having been 
built on an unstable foundation, generally of a 
cpucksand character, which, under the influence of 
excessive wetting and the pressure exerted by the 
weight of the embankment, is displaced and causes 
the embankment to subside into the cavity thus 
created. 

5. Wave-wash, which, when the river is made 
rough by wind or by passing steamers, attacks the 
surface of the levee not protected by a close growth 
of grass. 



110 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



6. Excessive erosion at salient angles due to 
removal of all of the old levee, causing abnormal 
velocity of the current, which washes and cuts 
awa}^ the controlling embankment. 

7. Cutting due to operations of malicious or 
insane persons. 

INSUFFICIENT HEIGHT 

Earthen embankments, no matter how well pro- 
tected b)' a growth of sod, will be destroyed by 
water flowing over their tops for anv considerable 
length of time. It is, therefore, absolutely neces- 
sary to keep the top of the levee well above the 
water surface. To assure this, the levee line should, 
if practicable, be maintained at a uniform grade, 
even if the cross-section of the embankment cannot 
at the same time be gi\'en the standard dimensions 
of 8 feet crown and C feet of base to each foot of 
height. All of the low lengths of the levee line 
should be brought to the standard grade well in 
advance of high water. The work can be done 
then not onl}' at much less cost, but so much more 
substantially, and the cost of protecting the new 
work with washboards will be saved. This matter 
was seriously considered just after the flood of 1897, 
but, owing to the long length of low levee line, and 
the limited amount of money available for levee 
improvement, nothing much was done beyond a 
length of about five continuous miles by the United 
States in the Lower Tensas District and a few miles 
by the Atchafalaya board scattered throughout its 
district. 

The length of low levee has since then been 
greatly reduced; it is believed that it is now prac- 
ticable to raise all of the remaining lengths of low 
levee to standard grade during the coming con- 
struction season. But if this is not done before a 
flood is in sight which will overtop the low lengths 
of levee, as soon as a conclusion as to the probable 
height is reached, which should be as far in advance 
as possible, the topping or "capping," as it is com- 
monly designated, should be put on with teams and 
scrapers. Work done in this manner generally 
costs less and has the advantage of greater com- 
paction and is in consequence much more substan- 
tial than earth placed by handbarrows or Avheel- 
barrows. To postpone the capping imtil the water 
is near, or actually on, the crown of the levee, or 
until the land in the rear becomes submerged by 
seepage or rainwater due to defecti^•e drainage, is 



taking an unjustifiable risk, and entails an avoid- 
able increase in the cost of the work. 

Whether the capping be put on by teams or by 
other means, it should be protected with wash- 
boards against erosion by the waves. In the 
past capping has been protected by sacks fiUed 
with earth or cotton-bale bagging carefully placed 
along the front surface of the capping. This method 
should be abandoned; it is more costly and less 
substantial than wooden washboards. If the cap- 
ping is put on by teams, the washboards can be 
most advantageously placed after the earth is in 
place; but if the capping is put on with wheelbar- 
rows or handbarrows, the washboards should be 
put on in advance of the earth. 

The washboards should consist of 1 x 12-incli 
X 12-foot lumber placed parallel to the levee, stand- 
ing on the 1-inch side and about one foot from the 
river edge of the crown. The washboards should 
be held in position by two lines of 2 x 2-inch pick- 
ets sharpened and vertically driven at least 15 
inches in the levee; two pickets should be driven 
for every six lineal feet of washboards, one on each 
side of the boards and with just space enough be- 
tween to permit the comfortable adjustment of the 
boards. Each board should be nailed at top and 
bottom to each picket. The writer has personally 
directed the placing of many miles of washboards, 
and has seen much of that kind of work done by 
others. Sometimes on account of scarcity of ma- 
terials, or in an endeavor to economize on cost, 
single pickets only were placed, or double pickets 
at the junction of boards only, with a single picket 
at the half-way point between, and the boards were 
sparsely nailed or the nailing was altogether 
omitted. These latter methods are falsely econom- 
ical and should not be practiced. The greater 
security obtained by the use of double pickets and 
full nailing will amply compensate for the cost of 
the additional materials. 

Weakness in some of the capping which has been 
placed in the past has resulted from inattention to 
small details. In the first place, the portion of the 
crown of the levee to be occupied by the capping 
should be thoroughly broken up so as to make a 
good bond with the new earth. Without such 
bond there will be free leakage across the line of 
junction, particularly in the case of thickly sod- 
grown embaid<ment. Care must be taken to see 
that each bottom board touches the levee through- 
out its length and that it is well pressed into the 



Past— Present— Prospective 



111 



levee to prevent any under wasli; the washboards 
should otherwise be firmly and securelv set, for 
they are often and for long periods subjected to 
heavy strains by the waves beating against them, 
and if not made secure they will work loose. As 
soon as they get loose and are weakened by the 
waves they cause the earth behind them to loosen 
and crumble and wash under the bottom boards, 
and soon the entire capping is destroyed. Care 
should be taken to tamp the earth in light layers 
as it is placed against the washboards, to insure a 
close union of the two. Otherwise rainwater and 
over wave-wash water will percolate through the 
soft earth, impair the union and ultimately weaken, 
if not wholly destroy, the capping. The top of the 
capping should be sloped towards the rear from 
where it joins the washboards, so that both rain- 
water and over-wash will promptly run off. 

LEAKAGE 

Leakage is due to either faulty construction, un- 
equal shrinking or sinking, or burrowing animals, 
and constitutes one of the most perplexing prob- 
lems a levee engineer has to deal with during high 
water. Leaks are more or less treacherous, and 
are both difficult and expensive to stop. 

Failure to properly clean and then break up with 
a plow, or otherwise, the surface of the ground to 
be occupied by the base of the levee, to insure a 
perfect bond between the embankment soil and the 
natural soil; or failure before construction com- 
mences to remove all foreign substances which 
might in after years decay and leave a cavity; or 
the introduction of foreign substances into the em- 
bankment at the time of its construction may re- 
sult in leaks. 

In some instances, where old levees have been 
razed in building new levees or where they have 
caved into the river, the writer has observed in the 
body of the embankment, large cavities, which 
could have been produced only by the rotting of a 
wooden barrel or wooden box or a pile of logs. 
He has also observed a clear line of demarcation 
between the embankment soil and the natural soil, 
indicated by a stratum, two inches or more thick, 
of partially decayed leaves and trash. This stra- 
tum must, by reason of its composition, be per- 
meable, in which case leakage would be free, and, 
after the trash and leaves would be deposed, the 
soil of the embankment or the soil of the ground 
would be attacked and eroded in proportion to the 



strength of the flow of water through the channel 
thus created. 

There need be but little apprehension in the 
future from leaks originating in the several man- 
ners described. During the past ten years a large 
percentage of the levee line of the Fourth Engineer 
District, Improving Mississippi river, has been 
built anew, and the remaining lengths have been so 
substantially enlarged as to almost entirely elimin- 
ate orig-inal defects; the system of inspection has 
been rigid, and it is not probable that the em- 
bankments contain any defects of construction. 

LTnec|ual shrinkage cannot easily be provided 
against. It usually manifests itself in cracks ex- 
tending in almost every conceivable direction, and 
its occurrence is most frequent in embankments 
l:>uilt of Inickshot or clayey materials or in embank- 
ments built of those materials and sand, alternately 
placed in thick bodies or layers. The degree of 
inequality of the shrinkage seems to be governed 
entirely by the amount of moisture in the soil when 
it is put into place. 

The earth near the bottom, sides and top of a 
crack, usually expands when moistened. If it is 
wetted by slow degrees the crack will usually close 
up. The greatest danger attending a crack occurs 
when the soil surrounding it remains unwetted for 
several years during which time the crack increases 
in size, and, if a large volume of water be suddenly 
thrust upon it, the soil will rapidly wash and the 
crack increase in size until it finalh- causes the em- 
bankment to collapse. Unequal shrinking is rare 
in embankments built wholly of loam or sand. 

The levees should be carefully inspected just be- 
fore or soon after the water has gotten against 
them, and, if cracks are found they should be 
filled and rammed with loose earth, particularly 
and most carefully on the intake side. If a crack 
is not discovered until the water is well against the 
embankment, the exposed portion should be treat- 
ed as above, and clods, mixed with loose earth, 
should be dumped into the water over the crack 
until the flow of water has been entirely cut oft'. 

Lateral cracks in a levee are sometimes caused 
by the sinking of a section of embankment built 
on a bad foundation, while the adjoining section, 
built on a good foundation, stands firm. ■ Such 
cracks are usually large and conspicuous, and 
should be repaired during low water. If not re- 
paired then, they should be treated exactly as has 



112 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



been described for cracks produced 1)y unequal 
slirinkage. 

The attention which has been devoted to drain- 
ing old burrow pits, neighboring sloughs, etc., has 
resulted in a large reduction of the nocuous opera- 
tions of burrowing animals, by destroying their 
harbor and breeding places, causing them to mi- 
grate to localities more favorable to their pursuits. 
But the evil still exists to a troublesome degree. 
Burrowing animals do not work with great suc- 
cess in sandy soils because the walls cave in behind 
them; it is in clay that they do their best work. 
For that reason we find few levees built of sandy 
soils cut up with leaks made by burrowing animals. 
This kind of leak is mostly found in buckshot or 
clay levees; a compensating advantage exists in the 
fact that such soil does not easily erode and a single 
hole is not always dangerous. If it is no larger 
than two inches in diameter it will do no damage 
as long as its size does not increase. It should be 
carefully watched, and, as long as the water it dis- 
charges is clear or free of sediment, all is well. 
But if it discharges muddy water or a considerable 
quantity of sediment, such action is plain evidence 
that the hole is either a very direct one or that it 
is enlarging by erosion, or that an animal or ani- 
mals are somewhere at work in it. It has then 
become a menace to the safety of the levee and 
should be promptly treated. 

The greatest danger to be apprehended from 
holes through any kind of a levee is the presence 
of a large number of them within a small area. As 
the holes enlarge, the intervening volume of earth 
is correspondingly reduced; individual enlargement 
results in several holes working into each other and 
becoming one hole, and this process of conversion, 
if not checked, may continue until numerous small 
holes have become one large hole beyond control. 

Plugging a hole is rather a simple matter if the 
intake end of the hole can be located, but to stop 
a good-sized leak at the discharge end is tedious, 
expensive and uncertain. The intake end of a hole 
which discharges out of the land slope of the levee, 
or at the base of the levee, or just beyond the base 
of the levee, may be several hundred feet distant 
from a point immediately abreast of it on the ri^•er 
side, or, if approximately abreast of it, a hundred 
feet or more distant from the base of the levee. 
There being a well-defined channel affording a line 
of least resistance, the water flows along that line. 
But as soon as the discharge end is obstructed an- 



other line of least resistance develops, probably a 
minute channel connected with the main channel, 
which, under the increased pressure, rapidly en- 
larges and the water bursts out elsewhere. The flow 
continues as before, not infrequently to a greater 
extent if the flow line has been made more direct. 

The writer has determined the location of the 
intake end of a hole by the use of unslacked lime. 
This method is very tecHous, and is not practicable 
if a large area must be investigated. If unslacked 
lime be dropped into the water just over the intake 
and is sucked into the hole, that fact will very 
shortly be manifested by the water discharged by 
the hole. In order not to confuse the location of 
the intake, small areas of ground only can be cov- 
ered at a time. 

The use of lime is valuable in some instances, and 
is recommended to determine if the hole be direct; 
that is, if its intake end is immediately abreast of 
the discharge end and within reasonable working- 
distance from the base of the levee. The position 
of the intake end of a hole largely governs the 
method which should be employed to stop the leak. 
In the majority of cases the intake end of a single 
hole is so far removed from the discharge end that 
it is impossible to locate it. When numerous holes 
exist within a small space the intakes are nearly 
always just abreast of the discharge ends. 

It is not considered possible to define a method 
for universal application in stopping leaks.. Nearly 
all leaks have to be cared for according to their 
individual characters, and this can come to him in 
charge only by long experience. The experienced 
physician does not always need a thermometer and 
pulse test to determine that a patient has fever; 
something almost intangible, in the appearance of 
the patient, the odor of the room and other things, 
make the fact apparent to him. So it generally is 
with the experienced levee engineer; he seems to 
know intuitively whether a hole is dangerous, as 
well as how it should be cared for. However, some 
general rules apply to the stoppage of leaks, par- 
ticularly to the a\'oidance of expensive and worth- 
less work, which may augment rather than reduce 
the danger. 

A common method for stopping leaks, when the 
tools and materials are available, is to drive with 
a dolly, or light hand pile driver, a single line of 
sheet piling (2 x 12-inch boards tongued and 
grooved or otherwise prepared to make close joint) 
into the river slope of the levee or into the ground. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



113 



just at or immediately beyond the base of the levee 
to a sufficient depth to encounter the hole or holes, 
and thus cut off the flow of water. This is a cer- 
tain and comparatively inexpensive remedy if the 
holes can be encountered, but if the holes are not 
covered the work is worthless and its cost will have 
been wasted. Sheet p'iling should therefore not be 
employed when the river side position of the hole 
cannot be definitely located. 

As dollies have not been extensively used along 
the river, a brief description of them is pertinent. 
A dolly is a stick of square or rectangular shaped 
timber of varying size and length, according to the 
driving power desired, near to the outer end of 
which, at proper working distances apart, are 
nailed cross-strips or hand-boards to furnish con- 
venient grasp for raising it. The inner end rests 
on the ground or a platform, and is held in position 
by several stakes or pegs driven about it, the 
ground end being but slightly lower than the outer 
end to maintain the dolly on something like a hori- 
zontal plane. Enough men are put at the hand- 
boards to readily raise the outer end of the stick 
several feet above the object to be driven. The 
stick is raised and sharply let fall alternately until 
the object is driven to the desired depth. Great 
care should be observed in selecting the position 
for the sheet piling with reference to the location 
of the leak or leaks and the character of the soil 
composing the embankment. The very least pos- 
■ sible penetration by the sheet piling' is desirable, 
to reduce vibration and avoid weakening the em- 
bankment by cracking or loosening it. In dealing 
with soils which easily crack or loosen when pene- 
trated, the sheet piling should never be driven into 
the body of the embankment. Sheet piling should 
also be driven in the shortest possible time. 

During the flood of 1893 a crevasse was caused 
by inexperienced men driving sheet piling into the 
embankment at Tessier's Plantation, Pontchartrain 
District. There were three 3-inch holes in the 
levee at that place, discharging within a few feet 
of each other at the land base of the levee. These 
holes had existed for some years, and had been fre- 
quently observed. In those days many such leaks 
existed at numerous places in that levee district; 
a few only of them were considered to seriously 
menace the safety of the levee, and those few were 
cut out when the river was low. But the great 
majority were allowed to remain undisturbed. Just 
before the flood reached its maximum stage, some 



of the leaks which had been allowed to continue 
showed serious symptoms, and the Levee Board 
decided to stop all of them. In this task a number 
of the bridge gangs of the Yazoo and Mississippi 
Valley Railroad were employed. A small gang of 
men, without experienced direction, commenced 
work during the afternoon driving sheet piling into 
the river slope of the embankment at Tessier. Mr. 
J. W. Ross, a nearby resident and ex-member of 
the levee board, has since told me that he was 
present a part of the afternoon the sheet piling was 
being driven; that before any of the piling was 
driven the holes were discharging clear water, free 
of sediment, and that the holes gave no evidence 
that enlargement was in progress; but that after 
a few planks had been driven the holes commenced 
to discharge muddy water and large quantities of 
sediment. There was no relief gang, and work was 
discontinued at nightfall, at which time some six 
or eight piecs of plank had been driven. At about 
nine o'clock that night the levee collapsed, and the 
river poured through the opening. There is scarcel}^ 
a doubt that the piling cracked and loosened the 
earth in the embankment, causing it to erode rap- 
idly, and that the sheet piling was the direct cause 
of the failure of the levee. 

Another, but more costly method for stopping 
leaks having their intake ends on the front slope 
of the levee or within reasonable working distance 
of the base of the levee, is to drive vertically two 
lines of 1x1 2-inch boards, not necessarily arranged 
to make close joints, from 3 to 6 feet apart, (dis- 
tance regulated by height of structure) with just 
enough penetration to furnish good toe hold, suf- 
ficiently braced longitudinally and laterally to 
afford required rigidity. This structure is built in 
a continuous length from the levee to a point be- 
yond the intakes and back to the levee, and, after 
the woodwork has been completed, the interior 
formed by the two lines of plank is filled with earth. 
The structure is commonly called a mud-box. 
Sometimes, owing to scarcity of materials or to in- 
experience of those doing the work, a single line 
of 1-inch plank was driven, and the entire space 
between it and the levee was filled with loose earth 
or sacks filled with earth. This form of structure 
is called a bulkhead. It is manifest that either bulk- 
heads or mud-boxes, like sheet piling, are worthless 
unless the sore itself — the intake end of the hole — 
is reached and covered. The writer has seen a large 



114 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



amount of all three of the kinds of work described 
which failed to accomplish any good. 

Of the three methods named, sheet piling, when 
practicable, is recommended. It is equally effec- 
tive, less expensive and most cjuickly put in place. 

When a hole develops serious symptoms and its 
intake end cannot be located, it must be treated in 
the most substantial manner possible at the dis- 
charge end. 

During the flood of 1890 the writer experi- 
mented with light sheet iron cylinders of different 
lengths, having a diameter varying from 10 to 18 
inches; they were equipped with soldered handles 
at intervals to afford good hand hold. To reinforce 
the cylinders at the base about ten cul)ic yards of 
earth was piled in conical shape about the hole, a 
small drain being left temporarily to take off the 
water flowing through the hole in the levee. As 
soon as the earth was in place the iron cylinder was 
clapped over the hole and forced into the ground 
l)v the weight of as many men as could get hand 
hold. The surrounding earth was simultaneously 
tamped about the cylinder. Not more than two out 
of a dozen of the cylinders proved successful; none 
of the large ones, over large holes, were successful. 
The water at first rose rapidly in the cylinders, but 
gradually diminished in rate until it stopped rising 
altogether. Generally the water found a line of less 
resistance, and broke out through the ground only 
a few feet away. 

The common method of treating a leak at its 
discharged end is by building what is locally termed 
a "horsehoe," which is nothing more than a mud- 
box, such as has been already described, built on 
the land side of the levee, and of such length as 
may be necessary to leave a good margin of ground 
on all sides of the leak. AVhile it is expensive, this 
method is certain in its results if the levee is not 
too largely infested with leaks, and is recommended 
in cases of serious leaks when the intake end can- 
not be definitely located. In the past, when lum- 
ber was not available and sacks were at hand, 
"horseshoes" were constructed by pyramiding 
sacks filled with earth. Such a structure is un- 
necessarily expensive, and should be discoun- 
tenanced. 

During some of the past floods the writer has 
known short lengths of levee to be so infested with 
leaks that application of all the several remedial 
measures, which have been mentioned, did not 
assure the safetv of the levee. In such cases col- 



lapse was anticipated, and, to provide against dis- 
aster, several lines of cribs (the number of lines be- 
ing regulated by the depth of the water in which 
the structure was placed) were built and filled with 
sacks filled with earth. In other words, the crev- 
asse was closed before it occurred. The cribs were 
so placed as to extend well beyond the base of the 
levee and at both ends to join sound embankment. 

These very bad places were the result of neglect; 
of failure, when the river was low, to cut out leaks 
which were known to exist but which were allowed 
year by year to extend and enlarge until the levee 
became thoroughly rotten and scarcely more 
water-tight than a sieve. 

The improved condition of the levee line and the 
attention which is now usually devoted annually 
to repairs and maintenance warrant the belief that 
such extreme cases of bad levee, as have just been 
described, are things of the past. 

The treatment of leaks should in the future be 
more simple and at the same time, less expensive 
than in the past. To-day much more is known of 
their character and how to deal with them; and the 
best remedy only of the past should be applied until 
some more successfully remedy is evolved. It is 
contemplated, of course, that none but experienced 
men will direct the work, and that suitable mate- 
rials with which to do the work properly and 
economically will at all times be at hand. 

The foregoing remarks refer to leaks of an ordi- 
nary character, but as very extraordinary leaks 
sometimes occur, it is thought advisable to describe 
one that came within the writer's experience and 
how it was treated, as under similar circumstances 
the same treatment would seem to be best and 
should be applied. The following is quoted from 
my report of the 1897 flood: 

"During the morning of April 27, when the water 
was at 52 on the Vicksburg gauge, a large leak de- 
veloped under the Clagget levee (64-4-R). At this 
place both the levee and surrounding soil are light 
loam. In the rear of the levee within 30 feet of its 
base there is an old burrow pit about 8 feet deep 
with almost vertical side next to the levee. With- 
out previous warning a 6-inch stream of water 
spurted out of the wall of the pit midway its 
height: it did not merely run out and trickle down, 
but shot out as if ejected from a hose. Its force 
was so great as to churn the water into foam in the 
pit into which it was discharged. There are many 
theories as to the origin of this leak, but its cause 



Past— Present— Prospective 



115 



will never be known unless the embankment should 
be cut and the hole traced. 

"It is more than likely a series of disconnected 
holes or small cavities existing under the levee, due 
either to burrowing animals or decayed vegetation, 
or probably both, and under the pressure of water 
there was leakage from one to another, attended 
with a certain amount of wash which continued 
until the several holes were connected and made a 
free passage for the water through one large chan- 
nel where the water burst out as described. 

"A large force was immediately summoned, and 
a semicircular wall of sacks built about 6 feet high 
around the discharge end. The interior space rap- 
idly filled, and the sacks were soon overtopped. In 
the meantime a large force of teams was put to 
work, and a run around commenced about 100 feet 
in rear of the main levee and designed to be about 
250 feet long when completed. An opening was 
left in it as an outlet for the overflow until the ne^v 
embankment was thought sufficiently high with 
proper cross-section to hold the filled basin, then 
the opening was closed. The basin filled rapidly 
at first, then more slowly; at the end of two days 
it was found that the basin was still filling, and 
would overtop the run around. The teams resumed 
work, and the embankment was raised 3 feet. The 
basin continued to fill, but as the river commenced 
falling in a few days, further raising was not neces- 
sary. It now stands with an 8-foot crown, about 
2 to 1-inch side slopes, and a grade about 3 feet 
lower than the highest point reached by the river." 

SLOUGHING 

When water has stood against an earthen em- 
Isankment for a sufficient time to saturate it, there 
is always considerable seepage caused by the 
river water percolating through the pores or 
interstices of the embankment. The amount 
of seepage is usually governed by the porosity 
of the soil composing the embankment. Seep- 
age is not usuallv free in embankments com- 
posed of clayey materials; when seepage does seem 
to exist in them to a considerable extent, it is more 
properly leakage due to cracks in the emliankment 
caused by contraction in drying out or to unequal 
shrinkage. Seepage is freest in emljankments com- 
posed of sandy soils; the coarser the grain of sand 
the freer the seepage, because the soil does not 
become sufficiently compacted during the time 
the embankment is constructing to render the mass 



impervious to water. Voids are of large or small 
size, depending on the coarseness of the grains of 
sand. Under water pressure the voids soon become 
connected and form numerous minute channels, 
which wash and enlarge as the flood is prolonged 
or the pressure increased by greater height. 

Seepage produces a general softening or rotting 
of the land slope of the embankment. The soil at 
this point often becomes semi-fluid, and, if the 
slope be steep, a part of the embankment will 
slough or slide out, producing a corresponding loss 
of cross-section. The writer has never known a 
first slough to extend higher up than one-half of 
the slope of the levee. If the seepage be not 
stopped, a second slciUgh will occur higher up as 
soon as the face made by the first slough has been 
reduced to a semi-fluid condition; this action will 
progress in steps until the embankment has 
sloughed across its entire cross-section as far as the 
water. Its action being progressive, sloughing 
does not constitute an element of great danger, for 
there is always ample time to stop it; treatment is 
simple if the principles involved be understood. 

To arrest sloughing, good land-side drainage and 
stoppage of the seepage are essential. A compe- 
tent drain ditch should be cut, about 2 feet clear 
of the base of the levee, to conduct the seepage 
water as frequently as possible to some natural line 
of drainage in the rear of the levee. Additionally, 
numerous small V-shaped gullies, an inch or so 
only wide and deep should be cut in the land slope 
of the levee to promptly deliver the seepage water 
to the drain ditch. The position and size of the 
drain ditch and gullies should be such as to assure 
the removal of the seepage water as fast as it comes 
through the embankment, for if this water is al- 
lowed to stand, the land slope will not become 
water-soaked and its integrity will be preserved. 

The next step is to stop the seepage; this is 
effected by dumping loose earth into the water in 
sufficient quantity to cover the submerged front 
slope with a blanket of fresh soil several inches 
thick, the coarser particles of which will be sucked 
into the interstices or small channels. These soon 
expand from wetting, and shortly the seepage will 
be "choked." The layman who sees this work in 
progress will immediately classify dumping loose 
earth in the water as sheer nonsense, but, as a mat- 
ter of fact, the good effect will manifest itself in a 
short while after work has been commenced; at 
first bv reduced seepage, a little later by entire 



116 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



stoppage and ultimately by the mass drying out 
and showing no further indination to move. 

If sloughs be treated when they first occur, or, 
better still, before they occur, when their approach- 
ing occurrence is clearly indicated to the experi- 
enced eye by the presence of excessive moisture on 
the land slope, much annoyance and expense can 
be avoided. As the treatment of sloughs is neces- 
sarily expensive when a number occur in close 
proximity and the supply of labor is limited, they 
may be only partially instead of wholly treated: 
that is, in lieu of putting a large enough blanket of 
loose earth on the river slope of the levee to provide 
against further seepage during the entire flood 
period. Only a small blanket need be put on, just 
enough to stop the seepage for a few days. The 
wheeling runs should be left in position, and, as 
soon as seepage again manifests itself, work should 
be resumed until the flow is once more stopped. 
In this way a force of fifteen to twenty men may be 
kept nearly constantly employed working from 
slough to slough. 

It is usually the case, when a slough occurs and 
an inexperienced man tries to correct it, that he 
will endeavor to restore the lost cross-section with 
earth or sacks. This does no good, but rather tends 
to augment the trouble, because the slough is 
thereby rendered more diflicult to drain, and at 
the same time that much more weight is put on the 
semi-fluid mass to squash it out, which invariably 
pulls with it some of the remaining good embank- 
ment. He does this because he does not under- 
stand what produces the slough. He does not 
know that it is caused by too free leakage through 
the embankment and inefficient land-side drainage. 

The writer received his first lesson in treating 
sloughs by observing men at work about a fleet of 
coal barges. If a barge starts a seam leak, it is im- 
practicable to dig away the coal to get at it. It 
is equally impracticable to detect the leak by feel- 
ing along the outer or water side of the barge, as 
the inflow is too light to be detected by the hand, 
and then, again, as a loaded barge draws from S 
to 9 feet of water, it would oftentimes be impos- 
sible to reach the leak by hand. But the coal 
barge man has a supply of coarse sawdust, and by 
means of a long handle, to which it is attached, 
lowers a cup of sawdust in the water within close 
proximity to the leak, shakes it gently, just next 
to the barge, and, as the sawdust floats out of the 
cup, some of it is drawn into the crack and becomes 



lodged ; it very shortly gets wet and swells, and the 
leak is choked. The same principle applies to 
stopping sloughs. 

SINKING 

Sinking embankment is treacherous and recjuires 
the most careful attention and the exercise of good 
judgment in its treatment to prevent disaster. It 
is treacherous because its action is sudden and not 
always attended with premonitory signs, and good 
judgment must be exercised in treating it, lest the 
remedial measures prove destructive. A trouble- 
some feature which attends the care of a sinking 
levee is that it is invariably situated in an ill-drained 
swamp, which soon fills up with seepage or rain- 
water, and earth with which to repair it is not im- 
mediately accessible, having generally to be tran- 
sported a long distance on barges. At the present 
time there are only two lengths of sinking levee in 
the Fourth District. One of them, which covers 
about 2,000 lineal feet, is at Kempe in the Lower 
Tensas District, and the other, which is a small 
affair, about 50 feet long, is at Point Manoir in the 
Atchafalaya District. 

Several sinking levees, of greater lengths and 
attended by subsidence of greater extent than the 
two levees just named, have been experienced in 
the past, but after much work they were made 
secure. The most aggravated cases of sinking seem 
to have a limit of subsidence, and it is only a ques- 
tion of continuing to pile on earth to secure a sub- 
stantial embankment. The levees at Kempe and 
at Point Manoir should therefore be made secure 
in time. 

A levee sinks because it is built on a foundation 
composed of quicksand or some other equally soft 
or semi-liquid material, the power of which to sus- 
tain weight is governed by the degree of moisture 
contained at the time the weight of the embank- 
ment is put on. It has sometimes occurred that 
the sustaining power has, during construction, been 
sufficient to support the embankment, and no 
movement has taken place until some later date, 
when the strength of the foundation has become 
impaired b}^ being excessively wetted. 

It has been the general experience, however, that 
all aggravated cases of sinking levee have been at- 
tended by considerable subsidence during construc- 
tion. 

As the weight of the embankment is the direct 
cause of the sinking, care must be observed not to 



Past— Present— Prospective 



117 



add, during a flood, more earth than is actually 
necessary to hold the water. As the embankment 
subsides, the very lightest possible addition should 
be made to maintain an elevation several feet above 
the water surface and the narrowest width of cross- 
section that will resist seepage. This will entail 
almost continuous work of small amount rather 
than a large amount at intervals. It must not be 
forgotten that if a large amount of earth should be 
added in a short space of time, the rate of sinking- 
will be accelerated, and the addition will do more 
harm than good. 

Sinking embankment seldom subsides uniformly. 
Parts of it sink faster than others, causing the levee 
to crack longitudinally. There is usually one large 
crack along the crown of the levee, though some- 
times other but smaller parallel cracks occur. Care 
must be taken to keep the water excluded from all 
or as many of the cracks as possible, particularly 
the largest one. As soon as water enters a crack, 
hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the section of 
embankment in the rear of the crack, and the re- 
maining embankment in front of the crack is ren- 
dered valueless as a factor of strength in resisting 
the pressure of the river. For this reason the addi- 
tion which is made to keep the top of the levee 
above the water surface should be placed as far as 
practicable to the water side of the crack. Lateral 
cracks which would let the water into the longitu- 
dinal cracks must be guarded against and immedi- 
ately stopped if any occur. If, as is somewhat 
common, there is seepage through a sinking em- 
bankment, prompt measures must be taken to re- 
mo\-e the seepage water in the manner described 
for treating sloughs. As much depends upon keep- 
ing the levee dry, it is advisable to spread tar- 
paulins on the entire sinking levee or at least cover 
the large cracks while rain is falling, to prevent wet- 
ting and to exclude rainwater from the cracks. 

A sinking levee may be compared to a sick baby, 
and requires the same continuous attention and 
care. As only a small margin of safety exists, a 
competent force, equipped with ample materials, 
should be retained at the levee night and day. pre- 
pared to care for emergencies at a moment's no- 
tice. 

WAVE-WASH 

Wave-wash is commi.m on lexees exposed to full 
wave action and not protected by a close growth of 
grass or some artificial device. It is a much over- 
rated dano'er, and has been the cause of the need- 



less expenditure of large sums of money in the past. 
Wave-wash is misleading in its appearance; in 
nearly every instance its worst feature is visible, 
but the inexperienced invariably conceive the idea 
that the vertical face made by the wash extends to 
the base of the levee and that the cross-section of 
the levee has been so much reduced as to seriously 
endanger th j embankment. As a matter of fact the 
deposed soil settles into position just under the 
water surface and the reduction of the cross-section 
is no greater than is apparent above the water sur- 
face. 

There was a time in the past when the cost of 
moving earth was comparatively high, and it was 
less expensive to prevent a part of the levee wash- 
ing away than to allow it to wash away and after- 
wards replace it. But this condition no longer ex- 
ists; under ruling prices for moving earth it is 
cheaper to restore wave-wash than to prevent it 
with revetment. Revetment should therefore not 
be resorted to until the safety of the levee is en- 
dangered, which, in the writer's opinion, is not 
until the crown itself has been attacked. It is ac- 
cordingly recommended that no steps be taken to 
arrest wave-wash until the vertical face it cuts has 
reached the river edge of the crown of the embank- 
ment. 

When revetment is used, as its service will be 
but temporary, the most inexpensive structure 
should be employed. Such a structure consists of 
posts 3x3 inches or ixi inches, driven into the 
river slope of the levee and inclining towards the 
levee at an angle of 15° to 20° from vertical; the 
upper end of these posts should be rendered im- 
movable by 2x6-incli braces connecting them with 
a short piece 4x4 inches or 2x6 inches, called an 
"anchor," driven in the crown of the levee. The 
posts should be placed not more than 6 feet apart, 
to give the structure sufficient rigidity to resist 
the Iniffeting of the waves. To the outer face of 
the post must be nailed lxl2-inch boards, laid hor- 
izontally, care being taken to have the bottom 
board everywhere throughout its length rest firmly 
on the slope of the embankment to prevent under 
wash. It is not usually necessary to maintain the 
boarding higher than 3 feet above the water sur- 
face to provide against destructive overwash. If 
revetment be placed in the early stages of a flood, 
the posts should be made long enough to stand 
such additional plank as the rising river rnay after- 
wards necessitate. 



118 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



EXCESSIVE EROSION AT SALIENT 
ANGLES 

This is a dangei^ which is not often encountered, 
and it may be easily provided against; its existence 
is directly due to the inexperience or inattention 
to duty of the constructing engineer. 

Acute salient angles are rarely put in new levee 
lines; the most acute angles put in new levee lines 
are the re-entering angles. Acute salient angles 
in the controlling line of levee are usually found at 
the junction of a new levee with an old one. If 
such a junction occur behind a sharp point in the 
line of the river, it will be subjected to excessive 
velocity of the current. When the river is extraor- 
dinarily high, the distance across a point is so much 
shorter than the length of the channel around the 
point that the ri^'er pours across the point with 
increased velocity. This excessive flow should be 
restrained from exerting any influence on the con- 
trolling line of levee by leaving the old levee, which 
the new levee adjoins, undisturbed for several hun- 
dred feet from the junction. In building new levees 
it is a common practice to cut away the old levee, 
which may be nearby, to secure better building 
material and at the same time to reduce the length 
of haul. There is generall)' no objection to doing 
this, but in cases of salient angles, which, under the 
circumstances above related, would be exposed to 
excessive wash, the practice should be omitted. 

If, however, a salient angle should be washing 
at a dangerous rate, the wash may be arrested by 
constructing a wing dam to check and divert the 
current. A suitable and inexpensive wing dam 
consists of a crib similar to that described under 
the head of "Leaks," built at an angle of about 4:5° 
to the axis of the flow on the upper side of the 
salient angle. The wing dam should be com- 
menced at a point on the levee about 50 feet above 
the angle, and extended so far that its outer end 
reaches to or overlaps the salient. 

CUTTING 

Cutting a levee liy malicious or insane persons 
can be prevented only by closely guarding the line 
while the water is near enough to its top to permit 
the work of cutting to be done in a short time. 
Remedial measures are of no avail; preventive 
measures alone must l^e employed. 

EQUIPMENT AND ORGANIZATION 

To execute most economically, as the exigencies 
of the situation demand, anv of the various kinds 



of work which have been described, suitable tools 
and materials and ample labor vmder competent 
direction must be at hand. As has been stated, 
much waste has resulted in the past from the use 
of other than the materials best suited because the 
most suitable materials were not available, and 
from incompetent direction of the work. In pro- 
tection work, as in other things, "a stitch in time 
saves nine." Much expense may often be avoided 
if a weakness be discovered in its incipiency and 
promptly corrected. 

No high-water protection system can be com- 
plete without good transportation and good com- 
munication facilities. To make tools and materials 
readily available, supply depots should be estab- 
lished every five miles along the levee line, and 
these depots should be connected by telephone 
service. 

Each of these depots should be provided with a 
house in which to store tools and materials and in- 
cidentally to furnish sleeping and eating quarters 
for watchmen and workmen; each depot should be 
equipped with two small flatboats to move tools 
and materials to points where they may be needed. 

By the time the river has reached 42 feet at 
Vicksburg, and, later on, 42 feet at Red River 
Landing, there should be an inspector in the field 
having general supervision of the high-water work 
for about 135 miles of levee line. He should keep 
constantly moving over the line to instruct his as- 
sistants and to see that they properly discharge 
their duties; he should also keep himself informed 
as to the materials on hand as well as those which 
may be required. 

Under his direction there should be inspectors 
having local supervision of the work on 20 miles 
of the levee line each. These men should inspect 
every foot of the levee line on their beat at least 
once in every twenty-four hours. As soon as they 
arrive on the ground, the embankment should be 
thoroughly cleared of all weeds and coarse vegeta- 
tion, and the grass should be mowed close to the 
surface in order to fullv expose the entire surface 
to the closest scrutiny. At the same time, existing 
drain ditches near the land base of the levee should 
be cleared and put in good order. If such ditches 
do not exist they should be promptly cut. As the 
river rises, or the amount of protection work in- 
creases, the 20-mile beat should be reduced to such 



Past— Present— Prospective 



119 



a length that the inspector can inspect every foot 
of it daily, and otherwise give it proper attention 
and competently direct all necessary work. 

Whenever the water in the river gets within 3 
feet of the crown of the embankment, a reliable 
day and night watchman, in addition to the in- 
spector, should be placed on every 2 1-2 miles of 



the levee line, and the watchmen should be re- 
quired to constantly patrol their beat during the 
night as well as during the day. If dangerous 
places develop, no matter what the height of the 
river mav be, a day and night watchman should be 
retained at each of such places in addition to the 
patrol watchman. 




HYDRAULIC BANK GRADER. 



120 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 





H. S. DOUGLAS. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



121 



PROTECTION OF CAVING BANKS 



By H. S. DOUGLAS, Assistant U. S. Engineer 



The general objects in view or ends to be ob- 
tained in the improvement of the Mississippi river 
are: To improve navigation; and, to prevent dis- 
astrous overflows during floods. 

At present the methods of attaining the first ob- 
ject are: The maintenance of liglits or beacons to 
mark the channel for the guidance of pilots, the 
operation of snag-boats to remove obstructions, 
principally trees that cave into the river in the con- 
cave bends, and lodge in the channel; and the use 
of powerful hydraulic dredge of enormous capacity 
for dredging the shoals or bars that obstruct navi- 
gation during low water. 

The second object is attained by the construc- 
tion of levees or earthen embankments of a suffi- 
cient height and section to confine the waters when 
the river overflows its natural banks. 

Both objects have been attained to a measuraljle 
extent, but much more remains to be accomplished 
before complete success, is not a matter of specula- 
tion but of certainty. 

So long as the river can, by caving its banks, 
shift its channel from year to year, permanent im- 
provement in the strict sense of the term is im- 
possible. The caving of the banks changes the po- 
sition of the channel and the lights and beacons 
must be constantly moved to suit the new con- 
ditions. The snag-boats find endless work in the 
removal of snags made by the trees that are under- 
mined and fall into the river in the concave bends. 
Theoretically if there were no caving banks there 
would be but few bars to obstruct low water navi- 
gation, because the river being deprived of its prin- 
cipal supply of mud and sand would not build bars 
and shoals with the material it moves along in sus- 
pension. It would be practically a clear water 
stream and there would be but little work for the 
powerful dredges. A channel once made by tliem 
would be reasonably permanent. 

A permanent levee system is constantly spoken 
of, but such a thing in a strict sense is impossible 
so long as the river, by caving away its banks, eats 



into and destroys many miles of expensive levees 
which have to be constantly replaced by new em- 
bankments built further back from the river. 
There are certain bends of the I'iver where four, 
five and six lines of levee have been built in the 
past thirty years. The cost of building these new 
embankments is so great that it prevents to a con- 
siderable extent the improvement of the system at 
large. If it were possible to expend this money in 
the enlargement and strengthening of a. permanent 
levee line it would be but a comparatively short 
time before the dreaded "crevasse" would be un- 
known and the stubborn, costly and frequently un- 
successful high water fight made on the levees dur- 
ing floods a thing of the past. 

All of which goes to indicate that if the river 
can be prevented from caving its banks, the prob- 
lem of its practical and permanent impro\'ement 
and the attainment of all the objects sought is 
solved. 

Unfortunately a cheap and successful method of 
protecting caving banks is yet to be discovered or 
invented. By the expenditure of large amovmts of 
money a successful bank protection has been 
placed, but the cost has been about $180,000 per 
mile of protected bank. This practically prohibits 
bank protection at present unless the interests at 
stake are of great value as at Memphis, Vicksburg, 
New Orleans, etc. In the early days of river im- 
provement it was thought that the banks could be 
held by light and comparatively inexpensive works, 
such as wire screens, pile dikes, and small light 
mattresses of willow brush woven basket fashion 
on poles. The constant failure of such works has 
necessitated the substitution of heavier and more 
expensive construction, until what is known now 
as the standard bank revetment consists of a heavy 
brush mattress from one to three feet in thickness 
and extending from low water mark 300 feet out 
into the channel of the river. Above low water 
mark the bank is graded to a slope of about 1 in 3 
and paved with rock. This latter material is used 



122 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



to sink and hold the brush mattresses in place on 
the bottom. Revetments of this kind have been 
generally successful, but as already stated, are very 
expensive, not onh' in the actual cost of construc- 
tion, but in the enormous plant required. Experi- 
ments of various kinds in the direction of reducing 
the cost of a successful bank revetment have been 
tried, but none of them have given results that 
promise complete success. What are termed 
"submerged sloping spur dikes" have given the 
best results, and in certain localities have proven 
successful. They are much less costly than the 
standard revetment, but are not adapted to ah por- 
tions of the river. 

To the casual observer who views a caving bend 
of the .Mississippi river, all that seems necessary 
is to protect that portion of the bank which he 
sees. As a matter of fact what he sees is only the 
effect, the cause being concealed. That portion 
of the bank that is concealed from view below the 
surface of the water is eroded and scoured away 
by the current, and thus removes the foundation 
or support of the upper bank which caves and falls 
into the comparative void that has been prepared 
for it. The wide willow mattresses of the standard 
revetment that carpet the bank below low water 
are intended to prevent this scour of the sub- 
aqueous bank. It frequently happens, however, 
that before the mattress has been placed the scour 
has already occurred and the stabihty of the bank 
been destroyed. In such cases the mattress is 
wrecked by the subsequent caving of the bank on 
which it is laid. Such incidents do not indicate 
that this method of protecting caving banks is a 
failure, but merely that the work was not done at 
the proper time. There are many places on the 
lower Mississippi river where, if the water sud- 
denly disappeared, the inhabitants of the immedi- 
ate bank would find themselves dwelling on the 
brink of a cliff from 1.50 to 200 feet in height and 
approaching the perpendicular. 

Among many plans suggested for the improve- 
ment of the river is that of making cut-offs across 
the narrow necks of the horse-shoe shaped bends. 
The idea is attracti\e, Init ]:)erhaps no other plan 



has been suggested that would be so destructive 
to the permanent improvement of the river. Cut- 
offs would obviously shorten the river but the 
shortening would be temporary, as the current 
would be greatly accelerated and consequently the 
caving in the concave bends become more rapicl 
until by the lengthening or deepening of these 
bends the river had regained in distance all that it 
lost by the cut-off. This fact will be readily recog- 
nized when it is considered that the distance from 
Cairo to New Orleans by river has not changed 
materially, notwithstanding the numerous cut-offs, 
both natural and artificial, that have occurred 
within historic times. Of course, the much de- 
sired permanency of channel and levee line would 
be impossible of attainment with cut-offs occurring 
from time to time, as the regimen of the river for 
many miles above and below each cut-off' would be 
so disturbed as to render the works of improve- 
ment that might have been undertaken valueless. 

The only means by which natural cut-offs can 
be obviated is by preventing the caving of the 
banks in the two bends on either side of the neck 
of land separating them. Here again the impor- 
tance of the protection of caving banks is illus- 
trated. 

Modern civil engineering is largely the science 
of accomplishing the greatest possible results in 
the most economical manner. The belief that the 
Mississippi river is tmique in that it cannot be con- 
trolled as other navigable streams are, is rapidly 
passing away. It is only a matter of time, inge- 
nuity and money, and it is this latter factor that 
makes this or any other work practicable or im- 
practica])le. It would be possible to protect a 
caving Ijank by using thousands and thousands of 
tons of stone to rip-rap it, but the cost of such a 
method renders it impracticable. The present 
methods are the cheapest that have so far been 
discovered, and when it is considered that a cheap 
and effective form of bank protection practically 
solves all the vexing cjuestions attendant on the 
improvement of navigation and the prevention of 
overflow, its paramount importance becomes evi- 
dent. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



123 



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CAVING BAAJK AT CARUTH ERSVILLE, MO. 



CAVING BANK AT CARUTHERSVI LLE, MO. 



124 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



-f^iS/l\ -*^^ 



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'!i^'*">~'^'' 




THE LATE H. N. PHARR. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



125 



PAPER BY THE LATE H. N. PHARR 



* * * You remember the dams 3'ou and 3'our 
playmates built of gravel, sand and mud across the 
branch and watched it filling the basin thus formed, 
until it finally burst the dam and rushed down its 
channel, carrying gravel and sand with it. Follow- 
ing it down the stream you observed that its volume 
soon began to change form. The tendency was to 
elongate and subside. This continued until in the 
distance your flood disappeared. As it subsided you 
noticed that it began to drop its load, first its heavier 
part along the bottom of the channel and the sand 
along its convex banks, especially below the apex 
of the curve. Thus are shoals built in the channel 
and sand-bars extended down stream. 

Then you had a flood wave governed by all the 
laws that control such waves in the Mississippi 
River. 

There is a certain force of gravitation (weight) 
inherent in each atom of water. This accumulates 
as the volume increases, and while the volume is 
restrained it remains apparently latent, but is never 
latent. It was this force that burst your dam and 
started the flood down stream. 

As soon as water begins to flow it accjuires a sec- 
ond force, due to its velocity, and the resultant of 
these two forces, its momentum, is the working force 
of the stream at whatever stage it may be. 

When we remember that water flows, i. e., it 
moves by an interchange of atoms, which is so easy 
as to be excited by the least provocation, that this 
flow is governed wholly by its depth or aggregated 
weight and the inclination of the channel, which 
fixes its velocity, modified by the friction it 
encounters, each atom moving -for itself under 
these laws, and is not in any sense pro- 
jected or driven forward by an exterior force, 
that all waves subside by their own weight (grav- 
itation), we are able to understand why your 
flood wave in the branch subsided. It did subside 
by increasing its length, because its banks restrained 
its width. The crest of the wave produced this 
elongation by restraining its rear and accelerating 
its front. Thus a stream flows faster as it rises than 



as it falls. Hence, all conditions being the same, 
a flood wave of any height will pass no two points at 
the same elevation. The dilTerence will be in pro- 
portion to the distance, or the same thing, the time. 

If ^ve now lea\'e the spring branch and go down 
to the creek we will find it, as you well remember, 
composed of a series of pools and shoals. A mo- 
ment's observation will suggest the fact that no more 
water flows through the pools, whatever their capac- 
ity, than passes over the shoals. A diflference in 
velocity is at once observed. This difiierence shows 
that there is a difference in their planes or a differ- 
ence of "slope." The shoals more inclined, the pools 
less so. That is, the low water service is a series of 
planes, making angles more or less with each other. 

If we follow the creek down to the old mill dam 
we find on our way that when we come to the head 
of the "mill pond" the creek just above is flowing 
on as if there was no dam across the creek and no 
pond there. If, on reaching the dam, we estimate 
the pond to be one mile long and find the dam to be 
eight feet high, observing the surface of the pond 
to be practically level, we infer that the slope of the 
channel is about eight feet to the mile. That is, the 
dam does not in any way affect the flow of the creek 
above the point at which a horizontal line laid on the 
surface of the pond, reaches the bottom of the creek, 
above. 

We have seen such floods come down the creek as 
to cause the shoals to disappear — even the pool below 
the dam was filled and the water ran smooth over 
the dam. The dam is but a greater shoal in the 
creek. From this we learn that while the low water 
lies in a series of planes, more or less inclined, the 
eft'ort of the water as it rises is to assume a uniform 
plane, and its nearest approximation of such plane 
is its high-water line. 

Now, it is plain tliat no water runs through the 
pool below the dam that does not run over it, though 
it is wider and many times deeper than a cross-sec- 
tion on the dam would show. And it is just as plain 
that all the water that runs over the dam runs 
through the pool, and that it takes a certain depth 



126 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



of water on the dam to fill up the pool and maintain 
the uniform plane of the high-water line, and that 
no increased depth on the dam can raise the pool 
above that plane. 

In the creek we have the river, difTering- only in 
such exaggerated features as art has contrived. If 
we now turn to the Mississippi River, we find the 
gauge reading of high water as follows : CairO' 52 
feet, New Madrid 47 feet, Cotto-nwood Point 37 
feet, Elmot 33 feet, Memphis 35 feet and Helena 
48 feet. This shows us very plainly that there is a 
long- shoal between Cairo and Helena, built up. 
doubtless, by long ages of annual overflow. To 
understand this it is only necessary to: remember 
that the working force of water is proportional to its 
depth multiplied into- its velocity. Anything that 
varies either or both of these factors varies that 
force. Now, that force is persistently occupied in an 
effort tO' remove matter from a higher to< a lower 
plane, and always works tO' its full capacity, as it 
finds the banks and bars of the river an easy prey it 
goes loaded. 

The overflow reduces both the depth and velocity 
— the depth by so much as is due toi the volume of 
outflow, the velocity by sO' much as it due to the 
reduced depth added to the influence of the cross or 
counter current of the overflow. Thus is the force 
reduced, which at once drops soi much of its load 
as is due tO' that reduction, and shoals are built along 
and below outflows. 

This shoal between Cairo and Helena is distinctly 
shown by a profile of the zero of the gauges, and if 
the profile be extended it will show the river toi be 
composed of a series of pools and shoals to^ New Or- 
leans just as we have seen in the creek. 

By examining the record of the reading of the 
gauges from Cairo to Helena for a number of years 
we find that the water rises faster at Cairo and 
Helena than at any point between. That is, as a 
rise comes on the pools fill up. Under the same 
conditions the relations between these gauges con- 
tinues up to 40 feet at Cairo, which gives about 30 
feet at Memphis and 40 feet at Helena. Up to this 
line the river is practically, if not strictly, within its 
banks, and the gauges show that 12 feet at Cairo 
gives 9 feet at Memphis and 12 feet at Helena. 
Above that line the outflow disturbs this relation. 
The next 12 feet at Cairo gives but 5i feet at Mem- 
phis and 5 feet at Helena. 

We see that 3-J feet of this 9 feet due at Memphis 
to this last 12 feet at Cairo has gone over the bank. 



If restrained between banks 52 feet at Cairo' would 
give 39 feet at Memphis, less whatever may be due 
to increased velocitj' due to^ 3^ feet increased depth. 
This is all the extremists can claim. 

But why does the 5-i feet at Memphis which has 
remained in the channel make but 5 feet at Helena, 
and not 7i feet as heretofore ? Plainly, because the 
Helena pool has filled at 40 feet on that g'aug"e and is 
deli\'ering over the next shoal below the water as 
it comes. That is, the conditions of a uniform plane 
have been established at 40 feet on that gauge. 
Thereafter a one-foot rise at Memphis makes one 
foot at Helena,; hence when the restrained flood of 52 
feet at Cairoi makes 39 feet at Memphis it will make 
49 feet at Helena, and can make no more. Hence, 
having the St. Francis Basin closed, cannot raise the 
high-water line a foot at Helena, but will doubtless 
restrain it slightly, which reduction will continue as 
the shoals are scoured out by the restrained flood. 

Nine-tenths of all the water that heretofore has 
flooded the St. Francis Basin left the river between 
Point Pleasant and Bear Bayou, a distance of 66^^ 
miles. That has been leveed, and the next flood will 
doubtless show a higher water line, due tO' the re- 
strained outflow. This increased height of water 
line has been called an "abnormal" rise, due tO' the 
restraint — a secondary wave on top of the primary 
wave — and for evident reason it must subside more 
rapidly than the primary wave. Hence I say 52 feet 
at Cairoi can never make 39 feet at Memphis nor 
49 feet at Helena. 

With this conclusion it is unnecessary to discuss 
the results from closing the St. Francis Basin upon 
the river below (they are prepared for 48.8 feet at 
Helena), further than to say that it will be veiy 
much to their advantag-e in this, that it will reduce 
the high-water period by from ten to^ forty days. 
It is not, as a rule, the height of the water that 
breaks levees, but the long-continued pressure. That 
is. it does not run over levees, but works its way 
through. 

If you ask why, if this be true, the contention 
that now exists from Helena to the gulf against 
closing the St. Francis front, and why do the engi- 
neers sustain that contention? I confess it is not 
easy, from my standpoint, to answer that with the 
deliberation its importance demands. 

For a great many years these people have been 
building levees. The}^ have closed one basin after 
another. In each case there were not wanting 
prophets, who predicted the most calamitous results 



Past— Present— Prospective 



127 



toi follow, and those whose interests were to be af- 
fected became their ready followers. As one pre- 
diction failed it was transferred to the next case and 
their following increased by those to be affected 
until the whole became seized by a ner\'ons appre- 
hension of an imaginary calamity, and this, notwith- 
standing the fact well known to them that closing 
the Yazoo front for more than sixty (60) miles 
above did not raise the high-water line one foot at 
Helena, nor did closing the zvholc front of the great 
Yazoo Basin raise the hig'h-water line one foot at 
Vicksburg". 

Their predictions having failed up tO' this time, 
they now turn their attention tO' the St. Francis front 
with renewed energy. They determined that that 
front should not be leveed until they were certain of 
their own safety,, while they have no idea what will 
give that safety. If their le\-ees were l)uilt ten ( K') 
feet higher and some new prophet, or some old one 
not yet exhausted, should raise the cry of impending 
ruin "the fat would be in the fire again." 

Is it surprising that the engineers, who a few 
years before held a convention in Memphis tO' urge 
upon the citizens of the St. Francis Basin to organ- 
ize and build that levee, not only for their own pro- 
tection, but also for the protection of the whole levee 
system, below by reducing their liigh water period, 
should discard all former experience, abandon their 
lines of reasoning and surrender their judgment to 
that nervous apprehension of calamity which per- 
vades all classes, of which Col. Suter, corps of engi- 
neers U. S. A., member of the Mississippi River 
Commission and president of the Missonri River 
Commission, than whom no one is more competent 
to speak on any subject relating to> the Mississippi 
River, says (see report of Mississippi River Com- 
mission to first session 54th Congress, Appendix I) : 
"* * * The great progress made of late years in 
levee construction, coupled with the probability that 
in a few years the svstem will be substantially com- 
pleted, has naturally aroused much interest through- 
out the whole valley of the Lower Mississippi. The 
increased flood heights due to this artificial restraint, 
although fully expected and predicted beforehand, 
have nevertheless created much anxiety among those 
persons who- are personally interested in the matter 
and have aroused much apprehension as to what the 
final outcome will be. This feeling is by no means 
confined to ignorant persons, professional alarmists 
and cranks, but affects also so many persons of intel- 
ligence and influential position that some expression 



of this feeling in the shape of adverse legislation 
is much to be apprehended. This being the case, 
it seems to me tO' be the imperative duty of the com- 
mission to prepare for such a contingency before- 
hand and to avert, if possible, such action by such 
a statement of facts as will serve in some measure 
to relieve the public mind. In a g-eneral way it has 
been shown that the large increase of flood height 
has been mainly confined tO' intermediate points 
along the great swamp basins. At the lower end 
of these basins it has been slight, as for instance at 
\"icksl3urg. The only feature of uncertainty which 
now remains is to the effect of leveeing the St. Fran- 
cis Basin. That this will increase flood heights at 
Memphis and all points above there seems certain, 
but so far as concerns the river below Helena there 
is this much to^ be said : All of the water which 
reaches the main stream above the junction of White 
River now passes Helena between levees, and hence 
has probably produced its maximum effect. There 
seems little reason for thinking that the height 
reached in ISSO will be much exceeded by any such 
floods as heretofore experienced." * * * * 

I wish tO' add that since our levees have assumed 
such proportions as to- be very costly their perma- 
nencv becomes a cjuestion of much concern. 

As long' as the flood which drops more or less of 
its load along convex shores and is able tO' reload 
from the concave banks easier than from the bottom, 
the caving O'f the banks must continue and the deep- 
ening of the channel by scour must be retarded. 
Some method of controlling the current so as to 
protect the banks has long been an evident necessity 
tO' the levee system. The revetment idea at first 
inspired some hope, but it was soon seen that its 
cost and want of permanency would confine it tO' a 
few points where immediate relief was needed, and 
there to such an extent only as would permit of 
frequent rebuilding. As a project to control the 
river to such an extent as to protect the le\'ees it 
was impracticable and doubtless never intended by 
the commission. It partook toO' much of that 
strategy which attacks an enemy in his own strong"- 
holds. It was therefore with much satisfaction that 
we saw the dredg'ing and portable dyke idea intro- 
duced, which, if wisely applied, will not only affect 
the deepening of the channel, so much desired, but in 
that \'ery act throw the current against the convex 
shores, cut off the bar and build up the concave bank. 
The whole thing is to get the current intO' the "mid- 
dle of the road" and keep it there. 



128 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ■ 




HON. KNUTE NELSON. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



129 



FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



REPORT OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLOODS, BY THE COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, 

UNITED STATES SENATE, PURSUANT TO SENATE RESOLUTION 

NO. 76, FIFTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION 



Mr. Nelson, from the Committee on Commerce, 
submitted the fohowing report: 

The Committee on Commerce makes the fol- 
lowing report of the action of the committee, taken 
pursuant to the following resolution : 

"Resolved, That the Committee on Commerce 
is hereby instructed to make full examination and 
incjuiry as to the following cjuestions and report 
thereon to the Senate, by bill or otherwise, on the 
first day of the regular session in December next : 

"First. What are the causes of the disastrous 
floods in the Mississippi River and its tributaries, 
and how can such floods be prevented or dimin- 
ished? 

"Second. If such floods are the result to any 
extent of the destruction of timber upon or near 
the head waters of said river or its tributaries, what 
measures should be adopted to prevent such de- 
struction, and whether reservoirs to hold the water 
caused by rain or the rapid melting of snow on or 
near said head waters should be constructed to 
prevent the floods caused by the sudden precipita- 
tion of the rain or snow water into the streams flow- 
ing from the regions where the sources of the Mis- 
sissippi and its tributaries are located. 

"Third. Whether said reservoirs, if their con- 
struction should be deemed necessary for the pur- 
poses before set forth, could not also be utilized 
for the irrigation of arid lands in the vicinity of 
such reservoirs. 

"Fourth. Whether the outlet system by which 
it is proposed to furnish avenues through which 
the waters of the Mississippi River can escape in 
times of flood is practicable or expedient. 

"Fifth. Whether the present system of improv- 
ing the Mississippi and Missouri rivers under which 
it is sought to confine the water within the banks 
of said rivers, by means of levees, and by such 
levees, together with jetties at dift'erent localities, 
to increase the erosive power of the current so as 



to protect the banks and deepen the channel, shoukl 
be continued. 

"Sixth. AVhat has been the eft'ect upon naviga- 
tion and commerce of the jetties at the mouth of 
the Mississippi River, and what is the present con- 
dition of said jetties and their probable future? 

"Seventh. AVhether the Mississippi and Mis- 
souri River Commissions should be continued in 
existence, and, if continued, what amendments 
should be made to the statutes creating' such com- 
missions and defining their duties and powers. 

"Eighth. What legislation is necessary to pre- 
vent the enormous destruction of property by floods 
in the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and 
what amount of money should be appropriated by 
Congress for the establishment and maintenance 
of systematic improvements and safeguards for said 
purposes? 

"That said committee shall have power to prose- 
cute its inquiries through a sub-committee, which 
may sit during the recess of the Senate at such 
times and places as may be thought necessary, with 
power to send for persons and papers, and to em- 
plojr a stenographer, the expenses of said commit- 
tee to be paid from the contingent fund of the 
Senate." 

The investigation contemplated by the resolu- 
tion .was carried on through a sub-committee com- 
posed of Senators Nelson, Elkins, Vest, McBride, 
Gallinger, Berry, and Caffery. 

In October, 1897, the sub-committee visited the 
reservoirs at the head waters of the Mississippi, also 
St. Paul, Rock Island, and St. Louis on the Mis- 
sissippi River, and Sioux City on the Missouri 
River, and took the testimony hereto appended. 
In February, 1898, the sub-committee went to 
Cairo, 111., and from there on the Mississippi River 
down to the Gulf of Mexico on the boat of the 
Mississippi River Commission, and on this trip took 
the residue of the testimony hereto^ appended. The 



130 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



testimony so taken is comprehensive and instruc- 
tive, covering every feature of the contemplated in- 
quiry. In addition to the facts and data derived 
from the testimony, your committee have also de- 
rived much valuable information from a pamphlet 
on The Floods of the Mississippi River, by William 
Starling, chief engineer of the Lower Yazoo levee 
district, 1897, and from Bulletin E of the Agricul- 
tural Department on the Floods of the Mississippi 
River, prepared by Park Morrill, under the direc- 
tion of Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather 
Bureau, 1897. The pamphlet will be cited as "Star- 
ling," and the bulletin as "E." 

The questions propovuided for the investigation 
of the committee are to a large extent questions 
of science and engineering, and the committee can 
do little more than to briefly summarize the opin- 
ions and conclusions of experts. 

CAUSES OF THE FLOODS. 

The principal territory submerged or afifected by 
the floods of the Mississippi River before the con- 
struction of levees, and in part since, consists of 
certain basins or bottoms along the banks of the 
river between Cairo and Forts Jackson and St. 
Phillip. These basins, from Cairo down, are as 
follows : 

The St. Francis Basin, on the right bank of the 
river, extending from Cairo to Helena, near the 
mouth of the St. Francis River, and embracing an 
area of about 6,706 square miles. 

The White River Basin, on the same side of the 
river, extending from Helena to near the mouth 
of White River, and embracing about 956 square 
miles. 

The Yazoo Basin, on the left bank of the river, 
extending from a short distance below Memphis to 
a point near the mouth of the Yazoo River, and em- 
bracing, in all, about 6,648 square miles. 

The Tensas Basin, on the right bank of the river, 
extending from near the mouth of the Arkansas 
River to near the mouth of the Red River, and em- 
bracing an area of 5,370 square miles. 

The Atchafalaya Basin, on the same side of the 
river, extending from the junction of the Red and 
Atchafalaj^a rivers to Fort Jackson, and embrac- 
ing 8,109 square miles, and 

The Pontchartrain Basin, on the left bank of 
the river, extending from Baton Rouge to Fort St. 
Phillip, and embracing an area of 2,001 square 
miles. 



The aggregate area of all these basins is 29,790 
square miles, or 19,065,600 acres. (Test., 431.) 
B'.ver since the immediate valley of the river below 
Cairo has been settled there has been a constant 
struggle to reclaim these basins and to protect 
them against overflows and floods. The problem 
has been in part accomplished, chiefly by means of 
levees, but much still remains to be done. The 
ultimate object of this investigation was to deter- 
mine the best method for the complete and per- 
manent protection of these basins against the floods 
and inroads of the river. 

The Mississippi river at Cairo is composed of the 
waters of the Ohio, the Upper Mississippi, and 
Missouri rivers. The Ohio and its chief tributaries 
have their sources in the western slopes of the Alle- 
gheny Mountains and their spurs. The Upper 
Mississippi and its principal tributaries have their 
sources in numerous lakes in that plateau of land 
between the Red River of the North and Lakes 
Michigan and Superior, and the Missouri has its 
source in the upper eastern slopes and foothills of 
the Rocky Mountains. The White and the St. 
Francis rivers, with sources in the Ozark Moun- 
tains, in southern Missouri and northwestern Ar- 
kansas, and the Arkansas and the Red rivers, with 
their sources in the lower eastern slopes of the 
Rocky Mountains, contribute considerable volumes 
of water to the Mississippi river within the basins 
subject to overflow. 

The annual normal rainfall in the diiTerent river 
basins varies greatly. In the Ohio it is 44.2 inches; 
in the Copper Mississippi, 31.9; in the Missouri, 
19.4; in the Arkansas, 29.6; in the Red, 39.1, and 
in the central valley of the Mississippi, including 
the White and the St. Francis, 51.4 inches (E, 24 
and 25). In the Upper Mississippi and the Mis- 
souri the rainfall is, as a rule, greatest in May and 
June. In the Ohio and the central valley it is great- 
est in Januarjf, February and March (Starling, 22 
and 23). 

The greatest and most destructive floods have 
generally come from the Ohio. This was the case 
with the great floods of 1882, 1883, 1884, and 
1897; and these floods culminated in February or 
March (E, 40-45, and Starling, 29 and 41). Of 
the total amount of water passing Cairo during 
these floods the Ohio contributed 69 per cent in 
1882, 70 per cent in 1883, 85 per cent in 1884, and 
76 per cent in 1897 (Starling, 27 and 41). These 



Past— Present— Prospective 



131 



great floods from the Ohio river, hke all similar 
floods, came from excessive rains in the basin of 
the Ohio and its tributaries. These rains arise from 
cyclonic storms and warm, moisture-laden winds, 
originating in the Gulf of Mexico, and passing 
thence up the central valley and the vallej' of the 
Ohio into the western slopes and spurs of the Alle- 
gheny Mountains, where a colder atmosphere is 
encountered, leading to the precipitation (Test., 
267). 

The Ohio floods, after passing Cairo, are fre- 
quently largely reinforced by floods from the White 
and St. Francis rivers and other streams in the 
central valley. Occasionally the floods, from the 
Missouri and Upper Mississippi are, to a limited 
extent, a factor in extending or prolonging the 
flood on the lower river, but this applies rather to 
the May and June freshets of the Ohio than to the 
earlier and more extensive ones (Starling, 24 and 
25). 

In Bulletin E (p. 46) the "Cause of the Missis- 
sippi floods" is thus summarized : 

"It is, of course, conceivable that a flood should oc- 
cur in the Lower Mississippi from heavy precipita- 
tion over any of the great contributary basins. In 
these floods of the past quarter century we do not, 
however, find the western tributaries playing an 
important part. The great source of floods is the 
Ohio Basin, with its steep slopes from the crest of 
the Alleghanies, upon which falls the heaviest rains 
of spring at a time when the normal rise of the 
Lower Mississippi brings the river almost to the 
danger line from Cairo to the Gulf. In the greatest 
floods we also find that heavy rainfall over the great 
swamp region that extends along the Mississip]3i 
from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico 
is an important factor. Third in importance as a fac- 
tor in producing floods is the Upper Mississippi, 
which, while never discharging a volume sufficient 
to produce of itself a flood, yet, rising later than 
the Ohio', serves to prolong the high water, and thus 
to increase the overflow." 

There are other causes, to \\hich we shall refer 
further on, which have tended more or less to 
aggravate the destructive features of recent floods, 
but the foregoing presents briefly, and in a general 
way, the primary and chief cause. 

DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS. 

Nothing in the evidence or other data obtained 
by your committee discloses the fact that the 



destruction of timber at or near the head waters 
of these river systems tends to cause or promote 
the floods referred to. It was shown that where 
timber is cut down for purposes other than culti- 
vation the underbrush remains and grows more 
luxuriant than e\-er, and such underbrush serves 
to retard rather than hasten the movement of 
water on the slopes and hillsides; and where timber 
is cut down for purposes of clearing and cultiva- 
tion the plowed area becomes an enlarged absorb- 
ent of surface moisture : It is a generally accepted 
opinion that the destruction of timber tends rather 
to diminish than to increase the rainfall. 

RESERVOIRS. 

There are five reservoirs constructed at the head 
waters of the Upper Mississippi. These reservoirs 
repress to some extent the floods in the river bot- 
toms above Lake Pepin and improve the navigation 
of the river in lo\y water down to that point, but 
have no material effect upon the floods or naviga- 
tion of the river below that point. The evidence 
discloses no other points on the Upper Mississippi 
available for reservoir purposes. On the Missouri 
the only point where sufficient holding ground 
could be found for a reservoir of any magnitude 
is on a reach of the river above Great Falls. Such 
a reservoir, if constructed high enough to bring 
the waters of the Missouri river into the Alilk River 
V" alley, would he \aluable for purposes of irrigation, 
but would have no material bearing on the floods 
in the Mississippi river, nor on the navigation of 
the Missouri river. 

The evidence, as well as the other data, discloses 
that on the Ohio River, as well as its main tribu- 
taries, where reservoirs could act more directly on 
the floods than elsewhere, with the exception here- 
mafter stated, there are no suitable sites or holding 
grounds where reservoirs could at any moderate 
or reasonable expense, and without working far- 
reaching and extensive damage, be constructed 
that would at all be adequate to pen up and retain 
the great downpour from innumerable mountain 
torrents during the great freshets of January, Feb- 
ruary and March. There are no great basins 
adequate for reser\-oir purposes either on the 
Monongahela, the Allegheny, the Tennessee, or 
the Cumberland: and to be eft'ective in repressing 
the floods of the Ohio, big, strong reservoirs would 
be requisite on these streams. 

The only place where a reservoir basin can be 



132 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



found, proximate and sufficiently large to afford a 
holding ground at all commensurate with any 
material or practicable relief, is the St. Francis 
Basin; but the cost of constructing and maintain- 
ing a system of reservoirs in this basin would be 
enormous, and far greater than the cost of leveeing 
the entire river front of the basin. The scheme is 
regarded by nearly all engineers and other experts 
as wholly impracticable. In short, your committee 
can discover no just or adequate relief in reservoirs. 

OUTLETS. 

Neither can your committee discover from the 
evidence, or through other sources, any material 
relief from the outlet system. It is not practicable 
to relieve the river by means of outlets except 
below the Red River. Two important natural out- 
lets now exist and have for years existed on this 
reach of the river — the Atchafalaya and Bayou 
Lafourche. A third, Bayou Plaquemine, is now 
closed pending its preparation for reopening by 
means of locks and dams. But these outlets, or 
others that might be constructed on this reach of 
the river, could afford no perceptible relief for the 
river above, where relief is much more called for 
and needed. The St. Francis, Yazoo, White and 
Tensas basins can get no relief from any practicable 
outlet system. And where this system exists and is 
feasible there is no disposition to extend it or to 
subtitute it for levee enlargement. (Test., 424-455, 
335, 375; see also Humphrey and Abbott's report 
of 1861 as to reservoirs and outlets.) 

I,EVEES. 

The history of levee construction on the Missis- 
sippi River has been a history of the gradual recla- 
mation of the several basins or bottoms from the 
inroads of the floods of the river. Anterior to levee 
construction these basins served as great natural 
reservoirs for the floods, the exterior hills or ridges 
of the basins serving as the high-water banks of 
the river; and within these banks so wide apart and 
with these basins for a hig"h-water bed, the floods 
never reached the high level nor the increased 
rapidity obtained since the great extension of the 
levee system. Levees are the penning up of the 
floods of the river from these high-water basins. 
The narrowing of the high-water stream by means 
of levees does not result in materially scouring a 
deeper channel nor in raising the bed of the river 
(Test., 269), and so the stream at its flood stages, 



as it becomes narrower, also becomes higher. 
Contraction without deepening of necessity leads 
to elevation, and as a consequence levee construc- 
tion has brought in its wake higher flood levels, 
necessitating from time to time higher and 
stronger levees. The history of levee construction 
shows this. (Dabiiey, Test., 311; Driver, Test., 
199; Starling, Test., 269; Gillespie, Test., 382, 383; 
Newcomer, Test., 334; Richardson, Test., 370, 371; 
Taylor, Test., 237, 239, 241; Table, Test., 432; Tol- 
linger, 510.) 

The first levee construction began in 1717, when 
a levee 1 mile long was constructed to protect New 
Orleans, then a mere village. This levee was 4 
feet in height and 18 feet across at the top. The 
country settled up slowly, and levee construction 
only kept pace with the settlement. Fifty years 
after this levee was built the settlements extended 
only 30 miles above and 20 miles below the embryo 
city. It was not until after Louisiana had been 
ceded to- the United States that levee extension 
was undertaken on an enlarged and systematic 
scale. By 1828 the levees, though of rather infe- 
rior character, had been extended nearly up to the 
mouth of the Red River. At the beginning", a 
levee 4 feet in height was ample, but as levee con- 
struction progressed up the river, and additional 
basins and bottoms were inclosed and protected, 
the levees were, of necessity, increased in height 
(Test., 237). There are still levees below New 
Orleans that are only from 3 to 4% feet in height, 
but the average height of the levees in Louis'iana, 
above New Orleans, is now from about 12 to 13 
feet (Test., 380, 369), and this height proved insuf- 
ficient in the great flood of 1897 (Test., 370). 

The flood stage of 1897, above New Orleans, 
was from 1 1-3 to 3^ feet higher than that of any 
previous flood, notwithstanding that the flood level 
at Cairo was less than in 1882-83 and 1884. Three 
great crevasses occurred in 1897 that remained 
unrepaired until after the flood subsided, and sev- 
eral minor crevasses occurred, which were closed 
during the pendency of the flood. This increased 
flood level was "partly due to the improvement and 
increase of levees." (Test., 370, 371, 380, 423, 
424.) The experience of 1897 indicates that a 
complete inclosure of all the river basins will 
require from 3 to 4 feet higher levees in Louisiana. 
The levees on the Yazoo Basin were only 4 feet 
high in 1858. From 1874 to 1882 they were raised 



Past— Present— Prospective 



133 



to from 7 to S feet (Test., 269-308), which proved 
insufficient under the flood of 1882; and based on 
this flood as a standard, the levees were increased 
to an average of from 13 to 14 feet in height prior 
to 1897. This was more than 3 feet above the high 
water of 1882 (Test., 308-311), but it proved 
utterly insufficient under the flood of 1897. 

Since the floods of 1882-83 and 1884 the White 
River Basin, the Upper Tensas Basin, and much of 
the St. Francis Basin have been inclosed, and this, 
together with the higher levees on the Yazoo 
front, have greatly aggravated and raised the flood 
levels on this reach of the river (Test., 269, 272, 
273, 311). The flood of 1897 made it plain that a 
complete inclosure of all the river basins would 
require an increase of from 4 to 6 feet in height of 
the Yazoo levees. (Test., 274-275, 311; see Star- 
ling's paper on levee construction in Yazoo Basin, 
Test, 505-508.) 

The work of inclosing the White River Basin 
was commenced in 1888. and most of it was done 
after 1890. By 1897 the basin had been inclosed 
by a levee of an average height of twelve feet, 
deemed sufificient under the flood levels of 1882-83 
and 1884, but this proved utterly insufficient in the 
flood of 1897. That flood overtopped the levee at 
many points, and was from 4 to 6 feet higher than 
any previous flood, clearly indicating that a com- 
plete levee system along the entire river would 
require an increase of six feet in the levee height 
along this basin. (Test., 301, 302.) 

In the Upper Tensas Basin nearly all levee con- 
struction has taken place since 1882 — mainly since 
1892. In the Lower Tensas Basin there was an old 
levee existing before this period, but of low grade 
and insufificient in strength. By 1897 the Upper 
and Lower Tensas Basin levees had attained an 
average height of thirteen feet. In the flood of 
1897 the river was from two and one-half to three 
feet higher in front of these basins than in the 
flood of 1882, and hence the levees were insuffi- 
cient. Had the water in 1897 not been any higher 
than in the floods of 1882-83 and 1884, the levees 
would have been ample. (Test., 330-332.) Sev- 
eral serious crevasses occurred in these levees dur- 
ing this flood. The higher flood level of 1897 was 
largely due to increased levee construction and the 
further inclosures of river basins. (Test., 334.) 
The completion of the levee system would require 
the levees on the Tensas Basin to be raised to the 



height of from seventeen and one-half to eighteen 
feet. (Test., 334, 335.) 

In the St. Francis Basin levee construction be- 
gan in 1893. Since that time a continuous levee 
of an average height of nine feet has been con- 
structed from Point Pleasant, Mo., to Chute 38, 
Arkansas, a distance of 127 miles. About 100 
miles more are required to reach the mouth of the 
St. Francis river and to entirely inclose the basin. 
The levees on the St. Francis Basin proved insuf- 
ficient for the flood of 1897, and several serious and 
extensive crevasses occurred. These levees need 
to be made stronger and higher — at least two feet 
higher than the grade of 1897. (Test., 167-170.) 

The flood of 1897 wrought great havoc, espe- 
■ cially in the older levees, many of which had been 
defectively and improperly constructed. There 
were twenty-three breaks in the St. Francis front, 
six in the Yazoo front, fourteen in the White river 
front, and four in the Tensas front, most of which 
occurred from an overtopping of the levees. Below 
the Red river there were only a few small breaks, 
and these were closed during the pendency of the 
flood. (Test., 432.) Engineer Ockerson, in his 
testimony (p. 432), describes the flood of 1897 and 
compares it with the flood of 1882 as follows: 

"From a point about 100 miles below Cairo to 
the Gulf the stage reached in 1897 was greater than 
any previous record. As far as volume of water is 
concerned, however the flood of 1882 was much 
greater than that of 1897. The flood of 1882 stood 
above the danger line at Cairo, or forty-two feet on 
the gauge, for a period of seventy-two days. The 
flood of 1897 stood above the danger line for a 
period of fifty-four days. During the flood of 1897 
the tributaries below Cairo were all rather low." 

Tabic shozving relative hciglits of floods of iSS^ 
and iSg/. 



Cairo 

Belmont 

New Madrid 

Cottonwood Point 

Fulton 

Memphis 

Mhoons 

Helena 

Sunflower 

White Eiver 

Arkansas City. ... 

Greenville 

Lake Providence. 

Vicksburg 

St. Joseph 

Natchez 

Red River 

Bayou Sara 

Baton Rouge 

Plaquemine 

Collepe Point, .. . 
Carrollton 



51-9 
<5-i 
40. 9 
37-5 
36.7 
35-2 
39-8 
47-2 
41.7 
48.4 
47-1 
41-7 
38.3 
48.8 
44 9 
47-8 
48.5 
39-3 
36.0 
313 
23.2 
15.0 



1897. 



51.6—0.3 

45.1 °o 

40.3 — 0.6 

39.3-I-1.8 

47.5+<:.8 

37.7-I-2-5 

41. 6-1-2.8 

51.8-H4.6 

47-3+5-6 

52.4+4.0 

51. 9-1-4. 8 

46. 8-1-5. 1 

44.4-F6.1 

52.4+3.6 

47.9+30 

49.8- 

50.2+1.7 



43.8- 
40.7 



36.3+5.0 
28.0+4.8 
ig. 0+4.0 



•4.5 
■4.7 



134 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



A due consideration of the testimony and other 
data bearing- on the subject makes it clear that the 
flood of 1S97 was, in its effects and consequences, 
greatly enlarged and aggravated by the extensive 
inclosure of basins and the extended and enlarged 
le\'ee construction that had taken place since the 
floods of 1SS2-S3 and 1884 (Test., 241), though it 
is doubtless true that if no levees at all had been in 
existence a larger area would have been submerged. 
Engineer Starling, in his book (41, 42), to which 
we have already referred, concurs in this conclusion 
in the following clear and apt language : 

"It is not only the magnitude of the flood of 
1897 which has made it of surpassing importance 
to the engineers of the Mississippi service. The 
widespread damage which it has wrought, while 
great, is yet not without a parallel. Its principal 
interest to the engineer is due to the experience 
which has been derived from the wholesale closure 
of unleveed tracts and the extraordinary elevation 
of its hig-h-water line consec|uent thereon. There 
are two of the great basins into which the Missis- 
sippi Valley is divided which have only recently 
been protected to any extent by levees. These are 
the St. Francis and the White river basins. The 
former was closed during the last three years, or 
since the flood of 1893, to a distance, measured 
along the river, of about 120 miles. There still 
remains a gap of about 100 miles. The White 
River Basin has been undergoing a gradual process 
of closure for several years. In 1893 there was a 
gap of about fifteen miles, extending between 
points 330 and 360 miles, respectively, by river, 
below Cairo. In 1896 this gap was closed and the 
line of levee was made continuous from the hills at 
Helena to a point eight miles above the mouth of 
White river. It is to the building of these lines and 
to the maintenance of the lines previously existing 
until a late period of the flood that the unparalleled 
stages attained by the water have been due." 

The construction and repair of levees was, in the 
first instance, undertaken by riparian owners, after- 
wards by parishes or. counties, then by the States 
or certain levee districts, under the authority of the 
States, and finally by the latter and the Federal 
Government combined, which is the system now 
prevailing. The first material aid given by the 
FederaF Government was a grant of swamp and 
overflowed lands; made to the several States ip 
..ISSO. The same year Congress.. also, made- pro- 



vision for a survey and investigation of the Missis- 
sippi river. 

This work was carried on for the next ten years 
under the direction of Captain Humphrey and 
Lieutenant Abbott, who made their final report in 
1861. This report was most thorough and ex- 
haustive, and is still the standard work on the 
hydraulics and physical features of the river. It 
made clear that no substantial relief from the floods 
could be obtained from reservoirs or outlets, and 
that levees, properly constructed, would afford the 
necessary relief and protection. Neither the testi- 
mony taken by your committee, nor other obtain- 
able data, has shaken or invalidated these conclu- 

• 

sions. During the civil war levee construction was 
at a standstill. After the war was over the several 
States began, without concert and without due 
plan or system, to extend and repair the levees. 
But the great flood of 1874 showed how inade- 
quate, both in quality and quantity, the efforts of 
the States were. Congress again intervened, and 
passed an act providing for the appointment of a 
commission of five engineers tO' investigate, deter- 
mine, and report as to the best plan for relief 
against the floods. 

This commission made its report in 1875, and 
came to the same conclusion as Humphrey and 
Abbott did in 1861, that a system of levees could 
alone afford adequate protection. But no syste- 
matic improvement of the river by the Federal 
Government was yet undertaken. Finally, in 1879, 
Congress passed an act creating the Mississippi 
River Commission, outlining its work in the fol- 
lowing terms : 

"It shall be the duty of said commission to take 
into consideration and mature such plan or plans 
and estimates as will correct, permanently locate, 
and deepen the channel and protect the banks of 
the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and 
ease to the navigation thereof; prevent destructive 
floods; promote and facilitate commerce, trade, 
and the postal service." 

From 1879 to 1882 $1,475,000 was appropriated 
by Congress for expenditure by the commission in 
making surveys and in improving the navigation 
of the river, but none of it was allotted for levee 
construction. In 1882 Congress appropriated the 
gross sum of $4,123,000, and from this the first 
direct allotment for levee construction was made — ■ 
about $1,300,000 in all. (Test., 237.) 



Past— Present— Prospective 



135 



The testimony of Judge Taylor, a member of the 
commission, explains in detail the make-up of the 
commission, the mode in which it performs its 
work, and the methods it pursues. From each 
appropriation made the commission allots a certain 
proportion for the construction and repair of levees 
in each levee district, which is expended by the 
United States engineer in charge of the district. 
The commission plans the work, subject to the 
approval of the War Department, and the district 
engineers carry on the work conformable to the 
plan. 

The first efifort of the commission was directed 
to the closure of the Yazoo Basin, and then fol- 
lowed the improvement of the Tensas Basin, then 
the White River Basin, and, finally, a part of the 
St. Francis Basin. In the respective levee districts 
the State and Federal engineers, while acting in 
concert and harmony as far as possible, work each 
on separate and distinct portions of the river. One 
reach is constructed under Federal authority and 
another under State authority. When a levee is 
constructed, the constructing engineer or his suc- 
cessor takes charge and care of the same. (Test., 
257, 258.) In case of an emergency there is by 
mutual consent a sort of joint care and supervision. 
As a rule, both Federal and State engineers are 
men of fine attainments, high character, and great 
public spirit, which tend to obviate any friction 
that otherwise might ensue from an undefined joint 
tenancy. It would no doubt be advisable to pro- 
vide b}' law in which authority the care and main- 
tenance of a constructed levee should vest. 

The evidence (p. 518) discloses the fact that 
eighteen suits have been brought against the 
United States for damages claimed to arise from 
the construction and maintenance of levees or 
failure to construct or maintain proper levees along 
the Mississippi river. The aggregate amount of 
damages claimed in these suits is $656,337.04. 

From a table (following p. 518 of testimony) 
prepared by Captain Waterman, secretary of the 
Mississippi River Commission, under the direction 
of General Gillespie, president of the commission, 
it appears that the total yardage of levees con- 
structed by Federal, State, local, and private 
authority is 164,860,375 yards, built at a cost of 
$47,631,503.78, of which yardage 68,570,431 yards 
were constructed by Federal authority, at a cost of 
$13,320,708.44, and 96,280,944 vards bv State, 



local, and private authority, at a cost of $34,310,- 
795.34. 

It is estimated that it would cost to complete 
the entire levee system, from the head of the St. 
Francis Basin to the Head of the Passes, at a grade 
sufficiently high and strong to afiford complete 
protection against floods at the highest probable 
stages, the sum of from $18,000,000 to $20,- 
000,000, and that it would take from four to five 
3'ears to complete the system. (Test., 245, 246, 
390, 396,408, 357, 360.) 

From all the evidence taken and considered by 
your committee it is evident that the basins and bot- 
toms along the Mississippi river exposed to the floods 
of the river can only be protected and preserved 
from such floods by an ample and complete system 
of levees from Cairo to the Head of the Passes. 

Crevasses and inundations, resulting in extensive 
loss of life and property, are liable to occur during 
all floods so long as the system is incomplete. The 
burden of completing the levee system is too' great 
for local and State authority. Your committee are 
of the opinion that the Federal Government should 
continue, as it has since 1882. to aid in the great task 
of controlling and repressing the floods in the river. 

Your committee are also of the opinion that the 
Mississippi River Commission should remove its 
principal office and headquarters from New York 
City to some point on the Mississippi river. 

NAVIGATION, MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

The testimony discloses that the navigation of the 
Upper Mississippi river has been considerably im- 
proved by the reservoirs, on the reach above Lake 
Pepin, and by riprapping. wing dams, spur dikes, 
hurdles, revetment works, and a little levee work 
at various points on the river below that reach. 
(Test., 20-34.) 

The Mississippi River Commission has carried 
on more or less extensive improvements of the navi- 
gation of the river on many of the reaches below 
Cairo. Such improvements, in addition to levee 
work, have consisted of bank protection in the form 
of riprapping and various kinds of revetment work, 
of channel contraction by means of jetty work, hur- 
dles, and various forms of spur dikes, and of dredg- 
ing on an extensive scale. Some of the work has 
been rather tentative and of a temporary character, 
and on account of the great cost has not been fol- 
lowed up. 

At present, aside from the levee work, the chief 



136 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



reliance for obtaining a low-water navigable channel 
seems to be dredging. The new style of h_vdraulic 
dredges seem tO' be very potent and effective, and 
seem to give great and promising' resnlts. Four new 
dredge boats have been for some time completed 
and in use, and two more are under contract and 
by this time ready for use, and there is money avail- 
able for another dredge. It is estimated that from 
nine tO' ten dredges will be required to keep' a due 
low-water channel open. ( Test., 100-108, 140-14S, 
218-235.) In the light of results obtained, your 
committee recommend that ample provision be made 
for the construction of dredge boats, and dredging. 
In view of the great cost, especially great as tO' re- 
sults, it seems that it would be more judicious to 
limit revetment work to^ levee and harbor protection. 
Contraction, by means of jetties, dikes, and dams, 
supplemented by dredging, seems to have given the 
best results at least cost. There is no doubt that 
revetments are very efficacious, but the cost is so 
immense that its systematic application is scarcely 
warranted. 

JETTIES AND PASSES. 

As the Mississippi river in its downward course 
is about to debouch intO' the sea it divides itself into 
three great passes, through which it enters the Gulf, 
and forms the delta at its mouth. These passes are 
known as the Southwest Pass, South Pass, and 
Pass a Loutre. From New Orleans down to the 
Head of the Passes there has been no impediment 
to deep-water navigation. The impediment occurs 
in the passes, especially at their heads and mouths, 
chiefly the latter. Prior to the improvement of the 
South Pass by means of jetties, navigation was 
chiefly confined to- the Southwest Pass, though Pass 
a Loutre had for some years been utilized to some 
extent. 

In 1839, when the Southwest Pass was first ex- 
amined, it was 15.2 miles long and 13 feet deep on 
the crest of the bar, and it was then, as now, of an 
average width of twice the width of. the South Pass. 
Between that time and 18YY considerable work was 
done in improving this pass, but such work, aside 
from a short and abortive jetty work on one side 
of the pass in 1856, consisted of dredging" and stir- 
ring up the bed of the channel by means of drags, 
harrows, scrapers, blasting, torpedoes, and other 
similar appliances. By these means a depth of 
18 feet was at one time, for a short period, obtained 
on the crest of the bar. In 1874, the year before the 



improvement of the South Pass began, the South- 
west Pass had attained a length of 18 miles, with 
a depth of only 15 feet on the crest of the bar, and 
on the 9th day of February last the pass had attained 
a length of 18it miles, with only a depth of 9 feet on 
the crest of the bar, according to soundings then 
taken. ( Test., 464.) 

In aid of the improvement of the South Pass Cap- 
tain Eads placed a mattress sill across the head of the 
Southwest Pass, which, aside from a little dredging 
prior to 1878, is the only improvement made in this 
pass since 1875. 

Prior to 1875 like efforts at improving Pass a 
Loutre, except jettying, were also made, which were, 
in like manner, partially successful. By the fall of 
1858 an 18-foot channel had been obtained in this 
pass, and for some years it was, on account of being 
the shorter pass, utilized for purposes of navigation ; 
but in 1875 the channel was destroyed by a large mud 
lump, and since that time no improvement has been 
made, except placing a mattress sill at the head of 
the pass and the work of attempting to close a large 
crevasse on the south side of it near the upper end, 
both of these works being in aid of the maintenance 
of the South Pass jetty system. 

The South Pass in 1838 was 11.3 miles long, 700 
feet wide, except at the extremities, and 8 feet deep 
on the crest of the bar. In 1875 it was about the 
same length and width, but only 7 feet deep' on the 
crest of the bar. In 1874 a board of engineers, con- 
sisting of 3 army engineers, 3 civil engineers, and 1 
from the Coast and Geodetic Survey, was appointed 
to devise and determine upon some plan of securing 
deep-water navigation through one or more of the 
passes. This board, after visiting Europe and ex- 
amining many works there in^'olving• similar prob- 
lems, recommended, in January, 1875, the improve- 
ment of the South Pass by means of jetties. In pur- 
suance of this recommendation Congress, in March, 
1875, conferred the task of making the improvement 
upon James B. Eads and associates. The jetties were 
practically built on lines recommended by the board. 

The original act provided for a channel 30 feet 
deep and 350 feet wide, but by 1S78 it became evi- 
dent that such a channel could not be obtained by the 
work then laid out, and accordingly Congress was 
induced to remit, by acts passed in 1878 and 1879, 
the requirement to a channel 200 and 250 feet wide 
and 26 feet deep, and on this basis the work was 
deemed completed in July, 1879. In making the ini- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



137 



provement, and as a part of it, training dikes were 
built at the Head of the Pass, and mattress sills were 
laid at the head of the Southwest Pass and Pass a 
Loutre. In 1891 the west end of the Pass a Loutre 
sill was carried away, and a large break occurred on 
the west bank of Pass a Loutre about li miles be- 
low the head of the South Pass. 

This break, although se\'eral attempts have been 
made to close it, has not yet been closed, and in con- 
sequence thereof, as well as on account of the loss 
of the contiguous end of the Pass a Loutre mattress 
sill and portions of the training dikes, and lack of re- 
pair and maintenance in some of the training- dikes, 
the inflow of water into the South Pass has been 
less than before, which has, no doubt, to some extent 
detracted from the scouring- force in the pass, neces- 
sitating some dredging, for the maintenance of the 
rec[uisite channel. Before these drawbacks occurred 
the pass received from 10 to 11 per cent of the water 
in the main stream; since then only 7 per cent. 
Three hundred feet of the jetties at the sea end 
have been washed away o<n both sides, and in addi- 
tion to this 150 feet of the jetty on the west side. 
None of the jetties thus washed away have been re- 
placed. The east dike at the head of the pass has also 
been washed away. This was a training dike, 1,250 
feet long, and has never been replaced. 

There is also' an open and exposed gap 1,100 feet 
long- between the end of the Pass a Loutre mattress 
sill and the end of the bank ot dike on the east side 
of the pass. This gap was, when the work was com- 
pleted, filled with a training dike. Five hundred 
feet of the mattress sill in Southwest Pass has also 
been carried away. In short, neither the jetties nor 
the training- dikes nor mattress sills have been kept 
up to the condition they were in 1879, but have 
been allowed to diminish and deteriorate. 

Up toi 1889 the channel was maintained at the re- 
quired depth substantially without dredging. Since 
that time it has deteriorated and has not been main- 
tained without considerable dredging. During the 
year ending June 30. 1896, there were one hundred 
and sixty-nine days of dredging. Within the last 
four years there has been an average of one hundred 
days dredging each year. The channel was not kept 
at the required depth for forty-seven days during the 
year 1897. On the whole, it appears that, although 
the jetties have accomplished much good and great 
results, they have not wholly succeeded, owing to 
the causes enumerated, in maintaining the fine chan- 



nel that existed from 1879 to 1889. To maintain the 
good results then obtained the dikes, sills, and jetties 
carried away should be replaced or restored as far as 
practicable. Besides, the jetties should be extended 
seaward farther than originally built in order to keep 
pace with extension of the bar into the Gulf. 

Jetties are the artificial extensions of the natural 
banks of the stream, and as the bed of the stream is, 
from the sill moving- in the river, prolong"ed into the 
Gulf, the jetties must, of necessit}', keep pace with 
such extension. For practical purposes the pass is 
not adequate for vessels drawing over 2-4, or at most 
25, feet of water. This is insufficient for the wants 
of modern commerce. Vessels drawing from 27 to 
30 feet and over are now quite common and much 
more economical than small vessels. It is very 
doubtful whether a channel sufficient for this larger 
class of vessels can be obtained in the South Pass. 
Major Ouinn maintains that it can. Engineer 
Donovan, with a twenty-year acquaintance with the 
pass, maintains that it can not. 

Your committee visited the pass in February last, 
and, with a 26-foot channel, found the pass bank 
full at all points. Unless the pass can absorb much 
more water the scouring process can not be increased 
nor a deeper channel obtained by that method. To 
secure a greater volume of water it would be neces- 
sary to build and prolong great training dikes at 
the head of the pass and to fortify them with mat- 
tress sills and other works, so as to bring about a 
larg-er inflow. In the next place, it would be neces- 
sary to build strong and extensive levees on both 
sides of the pass from the head to the jetties. There 
is scarcely sufficient foundation for such levees. 
The eartli and riprapping would have tO' be brought 
from a great distance, and the embankment would 
be subject, more or less, to the storms, the waves, and 
the back wash of the Gulf. In short, such leveeing 
would be an extensive and most expensive jettying 
from the head of the pass to deep water in the Gulf. 
These are some of the difficulties which occur even to 
the lay mind. To say the least, the cost would be 
enormous and the result \'ery problematical. 

But the commerce of the Mississippi Valley asks 
and is entitled to a much deeper and broader chan- 
nel to the sea than that now afforded or likely tO' be 
afforded by the South Pass. The Southwest Pass is 
regarded in many quarters — lay and expert — as the 
cheapest and most feasible route through which to 
obtain the recpisite deep-water navigation. Con- 



138 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



gress has already made provision for a thorough 
examination and snrve}' of this route. The engineers 
having the work in charge have not j'ct made their 
report, and until they do it would be premature for 
us to suggest or advise. We may add that to im- 
prove the Southwest Pass and at the same time to 
maintain and utilize the South Pass, thus securing 
the advantages of two passes, is no no\'elty. 

This plan was adopted in 1856, when provision 
was made and work carried on for the improvement 
of both the Southwest Pass and Pass a Loutre. In 
case of extensive repairs or accidents there would 
always be one pass open and available for navigation. 
(See ATajor Ouinn, Test., 443-4(33 ; Engineer Dono- 
van, Test., 466-482; Engineer Ockerson, Test., 463- 
465 ; also his article on "The problem of deep-water 
navigation through the passes," etc. ; also Test., 440- 
443, 483-490, 493-503.) 

MISSOURI RIVER AND MISSOURI RIVER COMMISSION. 

In respect to the Missouri River Commission and 
its work we beg leave to state that it has had charge 
of the river from Sioux City to its mouth, and that 
its work in recent years has been chiefly confined to 
the improvement of the navigability of some 45 or 
46 miles of the lower reach of the river and to so- 
called harbor improvements for the protection of the 
river fronts of towns from the inroads of the river 
on the other reaches of the river. The work done has 
no doubt been beneficial for the purposes intended, 
and the money appropriated has, under the limita- 
tions stated, been judiciously expended. 



The Missouri River is so eccentric and uncertain 
that great difficulties are encountered in controlling 
its mo\'ements from year to year, and nothing but 
systematic and patient effort can avail in its im- 
provement. The commission has recommended in 
all its reports the improvement of the river by 
reaches, commencing at the mouth : and the work 
done under this system has proved eminently suc- 
cessful, but Congress has unfortunately permitted 
the appropriations for the general improvement of 
the river to be diverted tO' local improvements, 
which, being isolated and unsupported, are usually 
swept away by the annual overflows. 

The condition of the river, by reason of the failure 
to adopt systematic and continuous improvement by 
reaches, as recommended by the commission, has 
been so bad as to discourage navigation, the rates of 
insurance upon boats and cargoes being absolutely 
prohibitory. 

Your committee is of opinion that in view of the 
great agricultural wealth of the countiy through 
which the Missouri River flows, and especially the 
enormous production of grain, the river should be 
so improved as to afford every facility for its navi- 
gation by boats and barges, so^ as tO' prevent excessive 
charges by railroads, and also tO' make lower rates 
for transportation. If the system recommended by 
the commission could be faithfully adhered to- for a 
few years, the river would be put in such condition 
as would induce the presence of steamboats and 
barges, so as to render it impossible for railroads to 
monopolize freights. 




%V{j^Hl 



\ii •>iiu 



,„- -- -^ __.,== — -jy*- «=-=„»-«*««• - 





' s PACIFIC, n9 u 



TOW AND BARGES ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



139 



EARLY LEVEE BUILDING 



By WIH.IAM BEER, Librarian, Howard Library, of New Orleans 



Whatever may be the relative merits of the dif- 
ferent methods of controUing the current of the 
Mississippi in floods, it is clear that the levees are 
of the greatest importance to the agricultural and 
commercial interests of the whole valley of the 
Mississippi, and specially to that portion lying- 
south of Cape Girardeau, in which the banks of 
the river are below the level of the flood. 

The system has been the work of two centuries 
as the following brief record will show. It takes 
up the subject at the time when the word levee was 
applied to a loose and rapidly made embankment; 
protecting the infant village of New Orleans, not 
yet the capital of the vast and unknown territory 
of Louisiana, or surrounding the few cultivated 
acres of the industrious emigrants who had been 
attracted by the reports of the wealth of the col- 
ony. 

The record runs to the opening years of the great 
struggle between the forces of the North and 
South. At that time behind their well-built and 
lofty ramparts were sheltered incalculable values 
of improved land cultivated by a million slaves, 
and producing crops of such market value that 
both the planter in the country and the merchant 
in the city were of princely wealth. On the first 
exploration of the lower Mississippi in 1(384 by La 
Salle, he found the banks under water. Li 1717 
Bienville, coasting along the shore of Lake Pont- 
chartrain, saw above the water the Metairie Ridge 
some six or seven feet higher than the general level, 
and, in consequence, decided on the present site 
for the foundation of New Orleans. The settle- 
ment he made in 1718 was greatly interfered with 
by the high floods of that year. For the protection 
of the infant city his engineer, Leblond de Latour. 
erected the first temporary levee which was finally 
completed by Governor Perrier in November, 1727. 
It was 5,400 feet long and 18 feet wide at the top. 
At the same time less important levees were con- 
structed for about IS miles above and below the 
city. 



The country around New Orleans was thinly 
settled. The levees were much injured by the flood 
of 1735 which continued from Decemljer to June, 
1736, and inundated New Orleans. This caused 
increased activity in levee building, and by 1736 
they extended a distance of 42 miles, from English 
Turn to 30 miles above the city. The government 
issued an edict compelling owners of land on the 
river to improve their levees and have them in good 
condition by January 1st, 1744, under penalty of 
confiscation. Owing to the execution of this law- 
Louisiana escaped with comparatively little dam- 
age from overflow. 

In 1752 the levees had been built along the river 
front 20 miles below and 30 miles above New Or- 
leans, from Concession to near Bonnet Carre. The 
levee system was excellent, and no breaks occurred. 
The government of the colony guarded the levees 
with ei¥iciency. These were constructed by the 
planters themselves. The government reserved a 
supervisory power, allowed no planter to endanger 
the safety of his neighbors by neglect. All the land 
so protected was under cultivation; nearly the en- 
tire population of the colony lived along the river. 
The cost of levee building Avas so high that new 
land was only slowly cleared and improved. The 
levee, however, continued to advance slowly north- 
ward at the rate of a mile a year. In 1770 there 
was a flood of which no account remains, and in 
1782 the Attakapas and Opelousas suffered se- 
verely. In 1785. 1791 and 1799 New Orleans was 
flooded. In 1796 the Teche country and in 1809 
the plantations above Natchez were under water. 

In 1812, the date of admission of the State of 
Louisiana to the Federal Union, on the east bank 
of the ri\-er, the levees extended a length of 155 
miles to Bayou Manchac, and on the west bank to 
Pointe Coupee, a distance of 185 miles. The total 
length of levees in 1812, therefore, was 340 miles, 
which must have caused an expenditure on the 
part of the cultivators of at least $6,000,000. 

Grand levee, which protects seven parishes from 



140 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River,-. 



overflow, the largest and most exposed in the 
State, broke in 1813 and caused great damage. 
The river overflowed the basins of the Atchafalaya, 
Bayou Teche and Grand Lake. New Orleans suf- 
fered sHghtly from a cave 12 miles above the city. 

In 1816 the Macarty levee broke for the second 
time and flooded to a depth of five feet the rear 
portion of the city. 

In 1828 the line of levees was continuous from 
New Orleans to Red River Landing, just below 
the mouth of Red river, a distance of 195 miles, and 
for 65 miles below the city. Above Red river they 
were in an unfinished state to Napoleon. By 1814 
the system was practically continuous to Napoleon. 

The increased importance of the production of 
the valley was shown in the River Convention of 
1845 at which it was recommended to Congress 
that Federal aid should be alTorded to levee build- 
ing and that the flooded lands of the basin should 
be given to the states for that purpose. The con- 
vention was not without its effect. Congress 
adopted a resolution authorizing a survey of the 
Mississippi for the purpose of ascertaining the best 
method of reclaiming alluvial lands, and in 1849 



donated to Louisiana, to reclaim the swamps and 
overflowed lands there, the whole of these swamps 
and overflowed lands unfit for cultivation to aid m 
constructing levees. 

In 1850 a similar donation was made to the State 
of Arkansas. The three States of Louisiana, Ar- 
kansas and Mississippi have thus received 18,545,- 
270 acres of swamp lands. , 

From 1850 to 1861 with ample funds, the pro- 
tection of the alluvial lands by levees proceeded 
with great activity and success. At the outbreak 
of the war in 1861 there was a continuous and 
stable line of embankments on the Mississippi 
river. 

The authorities on the subject are the great 
work by Humphreys & Abbot, "Report upon the 
Phvsics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi river; 
upon the Protection of the Alluvial Region 
Against Overflow; and upon the Deepening of the 
Mouths; based upon Surveys and Investigations, 
Washington, 1876." An admirable article by Mr. 
Norman Walker in the report of Internal Com- 
merce of the LTnited States for 1887 and the pages 
of De Bow's Review. 




ICE SCENE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER OPPOSITE NEW ORLEANS. 
REMARKABLE PHENOMENON OF THE WINTER 1898-99. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



141 





QyoL^Cf^ 



^►-e^^t.'CvCc^ 



142 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



DIRECT INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI 
VALLEY AND SOUTH AMERICA 



By gen. LEON JASTREMSKI, of Louisana 
Formerly U. S. Consul at Callao, Peru 



Thirty-five years ago, the vast territory from 
which have been formed the States of Nortli and 
South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colo- 
rado, Utah and Nevada, and the territories of New 
Mexico and Arizona, which are aspiring to State- 
hood, were inchided in what was then known as 
"the Great American desert." Communications 
with the Pacific Coast States were carried on by 
way of the Isthmus of Panama, the Straits of Ma- 
gellan and around Cape Horn, or by caravans across 
the desert. In the interval, the wave of immigra- 
tion has rolled across these vast areas, which were 
the abodes and hunting- grounds of the Red Men. 
Railroads have connected the two oceans, and pros- 
perous towns, cities and States, peopled by the irre- 
sistible white race, have sprung into active life. 
There are no more worlds to conquer within the 
vast domain of the Union. But the rapidly growing 
populatio'n, and the corresponding increase in the 
products of its industries, suggests the necessity for 
the opening- of new fields or markets for their sale 
and exchange. 

A mere glance at the map of the globe will suffice 
to indicate that the nearest, broadest and most natu- 
ral field for the expansion of American commerce 
and enterprise, lies in the continent of South Amer- 
ica. It must be obvious, too, tO' the commonest 
observer, that avenues for this expansion, other than 
the remote ones starting froni our Atlantic and 
Pacific ports, must quickly be opened. This is the 
era of lightning speed on the shortest and most 
direct lines. Clearly, all of the States whose water 
courses flow into* the Mississippi, must seek the 
markets of South America through the ports on the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

During my sojourn in Peru I had the good for- 
tune of profiting from the personal observations of 
an eminent American resident there, who had dwelt 
and traveled in the principal countries of South 



America; and, on a certain occasion, referring to 
the vast resources of this continent, this gentleman 
exclaimed : "You cannot overestimate the stores of 
wealth that South America possesses. Our people 
seem to have little knowledge of them, and I have 
come to the conclusion that the continent has to be 
rediscovered by our countrymen." 

The Europeans labor under the disadvantage of 
having to cross the Atlantic ocean to reach this field, 
yet we have allowed them. tO' get the bulk of the 
commerce of South America, to monopolize the navi- 
gation of its gigantic rivers and its coasts, to control 
the railroad across the isthmus of Panama and to^ 
undertake the work of cutting the ship canal through 
it. Shall we remain inactive and let them build its 
railway system while we boast of our ability to pro- 
duce cheaper rails in our mills and rolling stock in 
our machine shops ? 

The continent of South America extends from 12 
degrees north latitude, toi 57 degrees south latitude ; 
consequently it has a length approximately, of 4,150 
miles. At its greatest breadth, it extends from 35 
degrees to S3 degrees west longitude, and measures 
approximately, 2,800 miles. It has an area twice as 
great as that of the United States. Its population 
is not under 50,000,000. It possesses every climate, 
all species of plants and productions ; all the precious 
and other metals and minerals; rare woods, dyes, 
exquisite fleeces and peltries, and throughout its 
immense tropical region It produces articles in pro- 
fusion which are eagerly sought by the rest of the 
world. In its virgin forests and ^vilds it has been 
said by a famous explorer that there goes to decay 
on the surface of the ground enough riches annually 
tO' pay off the national debt of the world. Of this 
same region Humboldt also' has said that it is des- 
tined tO' become the center of the population of the 
earth. It has climates on its Pacific coast which are 
unexcelled by any other favored region of the earth. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



143 



In its equatorial domains the tropical heat of the low 
lands is tempered by the sea or moimtain breezes, 
while the altitudes afford climates of the temperate 
or frigid zones to suit the fancies of all men. It has 
scenery of unsurpassable grandeur and loveliness. 
It has glorious skies, majestic mountains and noble 
rivers, which are navigable for thousands of miles. 
It has great cities, centers of culture, refinement, 
luxury, pleasure and wealth. It has ever placid seas 
and deep harbors, and it has romantic traces of a 
civilization that had existed for centuries prior to the 
discovery of America by Columbus. It has histories 
replete with deeds of heroism, endurance and self- 
sacrifice, which rivaled those recormted by the his- 
tories of the Old World. If it has stories of frecjuent 
revolutio-ns, it has stories, alsO' of as many battles 
fought for liberty and the rights of man as the 
proudest of lands can boast of. It is a land of 
poetry, love and glory, and a land, too, of chivalric 
and scholarly men and lovely and beautiful women. 

Reveling- in the profuse natural riches of their 
land, the South Americans have not had tO' tax their 
energies as the less favored Europeans or North 
Americans have been compelled tO' dO'. Yet, they have 
neither been unmindful nor indifferent to the inven- 
tions and progress of other nations. Nowhere do 
enterprising, ingenious and resolute men receive 
more generous encouragement, and none such expe- 
rience serious difficulties in obtaining the most liberal 
concessions toi open lands to- cultivatioai, navigate 
rivers, operate mines, or construct canals and rail- 
ways. ■ They are welcome everywhere, despite the 
many deceptions that have been practiced by charla- 
tans and conscienceless fakirs. 

The natural conditions in South America invite 
intimate intercourse with us. T]ie seasons beyond 
the equatorial line are in reverse of ours. ^Vhen it 
is winter there it is summer here, and were the means 
of communication adequate, the South Americans 
would come here for a change instead of seeking it in 
Europe. And our people might, with far greater 
profit to themselves and their country, visit in return 
the picturesque and attractive countries of the south- 
ern continent. Innumerable false impressions and 
prejudices would vanish on both sides of the line, 
and a new era dawn upon the twin continents out of 
such intercourse. 

It is indisputable that our shortest and most prac- 
tical line of penetration into South America is 



through Venezuela and Colombia, along the slopes 
of the Andean range, just where Pizarro made his 
marches of conquest, and where he found the em- 
pire of the Incas. That the Incas had chosen the 
best and richest domain of their epochs is proven by 
the still existing conditions, for the occupation of 
the great basin of the x\niazon is yet most practicable 
from the chain of the Andes, where the United 
States surveyors have staked the Intercontinental 
Railway, which, be it said in passing, our people are 
allowing to slumber in company with the Nicaragua 
canal. 

In these days commerce moves with steamships 
or railways, and as long as the United States do 
not provide them, the European steamship lines to 
Colon and around Cape Horn will take to Europe 
the trade of that region of South America which 
nature has placed within easy grasp of the American 
people. 

A glance at the map shows that the Atlantic coast 
countries of South America are closer, perhaps, tO' 
Europe than to the United States. This justifies the 
preponderance of European commerce in these coun- 
tries. 

On the Pacific coast of South America the geo- 
graphical position is reversed, since the capital of 
Peru, for example, is on tlie same longitudinal line 
as JVasIiingfon eity. It, and its seaport, Callao, 
whence a railway line pierces the Andes and de- 
scends towards the boundless valley of the Amazon, 
are distant but 1,500 miles from Panama. 

It takes the Colombian Line steamers more than 
six days to carry the United States mails, freights 
and passengers from all the States east of the Rock- 
ies, from New York tO' Colon. In less than four 
days steamers could go from New Orleans tO' Colon. 

Obviously the general trade interests of our coun- 
try would seem to sugg'est the dispatching- of the 
mails, freights and passengers from the Eastern 
States, as at present, by the Colombian Line from 
New York tO' Colon, and the mails, etc., from the 
north, west and south via New Orleans. 

San Francisco mails are carried by rail to New 
Orleans in less than four days. As steamships can 
go from New Orleans to Colon in less than four 
days, it follows that San Francisco fast mails could 
be conveyed this way to Panama in eig'ht days. 
It now takes San Francisco^ mails twenty-two days 
to reach Panama bv the Pacific mail steamers. 



144 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 

The following- table of distances will best illus- will overflow into undeveloped regions. The nearest 

trate the foregoing : of these is western South America, the elevated 

Miles. plateaus of which are habitable by northern races. 

Callao to Colon 1,550 It may be conjectured that the relations of the vast 

Colon tO' New Orleans 1,350 territories in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, for which 

the Spaniards have done so little, and which can 

"^' hardly remain forever neglected, will one day be- 

Callao to Colon 1,550 come far closer with the United States than with 

Colon to New York 2,026 any European power." 

■ Owing to the unavoidable curves that the railways 
'" make through Texas and Mexico, the connection 

Callao to Panama 1,500 that will be made at or near the Isthmus O'f Panama 

Panama to San Francisco- 3,800 with the projected Intercontinental Railway, will 

■ always be cjuicker, cheaper and shorter by sea from 

' New Orleans, and the directors of the railways cen- 

Callao tO' Colon 1,550 tering there cannot fail to perceive that steamships 

Colon tO' principal European ports 6,500 connecting New Orleans with South America would 

■ operate practically as extensions of their lines into 
'■ '^ South America. In my judgment the first line of 

The difference in favor of the United States ports steamers should be established from New Orleans 

is seen at a glance. to Colon and other ports in Colombia and the Venez- 

With an enterprise worthy of imitation, some uelan port of Laguayra. They should make close 

seventy European steamers ply between European connection for the transferring of passengers, mails 

ports and Colon. and freights with the steamers at Panama bound 

Among these a Liverpool line (the West India) for the ports of Colombiac, Eucador, Peru and 

has steamers which, on their return trips, stop at Chili, to- the southward, and the ports of Central 

New Orleans to. complete cargo-, but which, on their America, Mexico- and California, to the northward, 

way out, do not stop- at New Orleans. The effect The vessels should be first-class in speed and acco-m- 

is obvious. New Orleans, the nearest American modations, and backed with sufficient capital to sat- 

seaport — which is the natural outlet of the great isfy the public that they will stay in the trade, for 

valleys of the Missouri, the Mississippi and the Ohio it cannot be reasonably expected that the established 

— is left undisturbed in its strange isolation from currents of trade will be diverted by vessels sent out 

the South American countries on the Pacific ocean. for one or two tentative voyages. As the United 

It is to be considered that from New Orleans States mail service with the Isthmus is one of the 

mails and passengers could be conveyed by rail to obstacles to- enlarged intercourse with South Amer- 

Washington in thirty-six hours; to New York in ica, no difficulty should be experienced from our 

forty hours; to- Chicago in thirty hours; and to San government in obtaining mail contracts for the lines 

Francisco in less than four days. referred to-, which would enable all of our territory 

Mr. James Bryce, the profound observer and west of the States of the Atlantic seabo-ard to have 

thinker, says in his famous "American Common- direct and speedy mail communications zuith South 

wealth" : America, through Nezv Orleans. It would then be- 

"The fate of western South America belongs to a come practicable and advisable for our express com- 

still mo-re distant future, but it can hardly remain panics to establish agencies in all the countries which 

unconnected with what is already by far the greatest could be reached by the new and shorter line, and 

power in the Western Hemisphere. When capital, for American commercial houses or limited stock 

which is accumulating in the United States with companies, to open branches or stores there. Quick 

extraordinary rapidity, is no longer able to find and regular voyages, good accommodations, at rea- 

highly profitable employment in the development of sonable rates, and excursion facilities both ways, 

western North America, it will tend to- seek other would develop an intercourse of surprising dimen- 

fields. When population has filled up- the present sions, of peo-ple from both continents on business 

territory of the United States, enterprising spirits or pleasure bent. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



145 



This trade movement southward should never 
cease until a steamship service is established in the 
Gulf of Mexico, greater in importance to New Or- 
leans than was the steamboat service on our rivers 
prior tO' the railway era. When it is remembered, 
for example, that the voyage by steamer to Shreve- 
port took longer, was more dangerous and the run- 
ning expenses of the steamers far greater than would 
be the steamship navigation on the Gulf, is it not 
passing strange that the latter is scarcely beyond 
the embryonic stage? 

New Orleans is the nearest American seaport to 
the Isthmus of Panama and to South America. It 
has an ancestry and a colonial history in common 
with the Spanish-American countries. There are 
striking similarities between the Creoles of 
New Orleans and the Creoles oi Spanish- 
America, and the latter would find in the architec- 
tural and other features of our Creole quarter, and 
in the tastes, customs, manners and instincts of its 
inhabitants, much that would be congenial, and 
would remind them of their own land. No other 
city in the United States is sO' felicitously adapted 
toi lead in the great movement which is destined to 
weave the ties of fraternity, common aspirations 
and commercial intercourse between the twin Amer- 
ican continents. Everything in existing conditions 
suggests this forward movement. No other great 
seaport presents the unique spectacle that New Or- 
leans does towards the countries beaten by the waves 
of the Gulf of Mexico. It might be likened to Mar- 
seilles, communicating with Cairo- and Constanti- 
nople, through Havre and Bordeaux ; Liverpool with 
New York, through London, and Oporto with Ha- 
vana, through Barcelona. 

There may be comfort in the thought that many 
interior commercial and manufacturing centers, 
which are seeking new markets in Latin America, 
likewise pay tribute to the longer route via New 
York. It may be that these centers have not yet 
discovered that New Orleans is 700 miles nearer 
to the Isthmus of Panama than New York. 
For example, via New Orleans, Cincin- 
nati would save 627 miles ; Indianapolis, 689 ; Chi- 
cago, 700; Duluth, 750; St. Paul, 754; Omaha, 
1,032 ; Kansas City, 1,207 ; St. Louis, 1,058 ; Louis- 
ville, 841 ; Nashville, 1,073 ; Knoxville, 883 ; Chat- 
tanooga, 1,059 ; Atlanta, 1,081 ; Memphis, 1,462. 

An examination of the map of the world and of 
the locations of its seaports will readily disclose the 
incontestable fact that of all her rivals in the mari- 



time trade. New Orleans possesses, beyond any 
comparison, the greatest natural advantages. No 
other seaport in the world has for feeders to- its 
trade as many miles of river navigation at its back 
as New Orleans possesses in the great waterways 
system of the Mississippi valley, and the day is at 
hand when, by means of the Hennepin canal, the 
chain of our northern lakes will be joined for prac- 
tical uses to the river system, for which New Orleans 
is the natural outlet. For her railway facilities, 
New Orleans has some of the leading air lines from 
the Gulf of Mexico to the northern boundary of the 
United States, and she stands on perhaps the gi'eat- 
est and most important transcontinental railway that 
joins the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is almost need- 
less to add that these lines intersect the entire railway 
system of the United States. 

Toward the gulf, at varying distances of but a few 
hundreds of miles, New Orleans has at her right 
hand the entire coast line of Louisiana, Texas, Mex- 
ico and Central America, while at her left hand, and 
about equidistant, is the coast line of Mississippi, 
Alabama and Florida, and the whole archipelago 
of the West India Islands, in which Cuba, Santo 
Domingo, Haiti and Jamaica are to be included. 
But by far grander, and due south, at no greater a 
distance than 1,300 miles, lies the marvelous con- 
tinent of South America, with its superb rivers, 
mountains and valleys, its wealth of precious and 
other minerals, its forests teeming with undisturbed 
woods and glorious vegetation, its magnificent cities, 
its varied climates and dazzling scenery, its popula- 
tion of 50,000,000, its capacity to accommodate 
eight times as many more, with a corresponding de- 
velopment of its already great trade and industries, 
eagerly awaiting the coming of the reputed unri- 
valed American enterprise. All this and much more 
than the pen can describe, faces New Orleans, and 
through New Orleans the great Yankee nation, for 
whose smelters and workshops and for whose sur- 
plus of machinists and skilled artisans and other 
classes of work and money seekers. South America 
offers a broader field than any other division of the 
globe. 

New York, on the Atlantic side, is over 2,000 
miles from the Isthmus of Panama, and San Fran- 
cisco, on the Pacific side, is nigh on to 4,000 miles 
from the same isthmus. New Orleans is only 1,300 
miles from it, and, therefore, has the advantage of 
700 miles in distance over New York, and more 
than 2,000 miles over San Francisco, in the compe- 



146 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



tition for the trade and intercourse with the Pacific 
coast of South America, that is to say, with Colom- 
bia,, Ecuador, Peru, BoHvia and Chili, whose com- 
bined population exceeds 12,000,000, and whose 
actual trade and industries, already very great, are 
susceptible of a four-fold development by means of 
an isthmian canal in a very few years. 

Obviously, the Pacific and northern sides of South 
America offer to the people of the Mississippi Val- 
ley the g'reatest inducements. Undisputably, too, 
the line of penetration from the United States into 
South America is along' its western side, the Pacific 
ocean, for navigation, and the eastern slopes of the 
Andean chain for the Intercontinental Railway, 
which would give our people an inland route through 
the heart of South America, where its greatest un- 
developed riches and opportunities lie, all the way 
to the magnificent city of Buenos Ayres, so aptly 
called the Paris of South America. In passing, it 
may not be amiss to remark that the line of the inter- 
continental was surveyed some years ago, at United 
States expense, by a corps of American engineers, 
whoi reported the project entirely feasible, and at a 
cost approximating $100,900,000. 

American effort should be directed primarily to 
the construction of the isthmian canal, to the end that 
American shipping from our Atlantic and gulf ports 
may then strike foi" the overflow of European steam- 
ship monopolies which are controlling the trade of 
the Pacific coast of South America, and to a con- 
siderable extent the trade, too, of the western coasts 
of Central America and Mexico. 

But American effort should not wait until the 
completion of the isthmian canal to attack the trade 
to which I have adverted. It should establish direct 
lines of first-ckss steamships between New Orleans 
and the leading ports of the north coast of South 
America and with the Isthmus of Panama, there to 
connect with the Panama Railroad. Furthermore, 
as a regulator of charges by the Panama Railroad, 
American capital should help to complete, and, if 
possible, gain control of the short interoceanic rail- 
ways across Costa Rica, Honduras and Guatemala ; 
and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in Mexico. By 
these means the American steamship lines, which 
should be promptly established, would have no less 
than five competing" short interoceanic railways over 
which to wrestle for the trade of the Pacific coasts, 
with the European lines now acting in co-operation 
on both oceans against American trade progress. 



These American steamships would be ready for the 
direct trade through the canal upon its completion. 

Once, New Orleans was considered one of the 
leading coffee importing markets in this country, 
and it is stated that coffee imports from Brazil and 
other countries tO' New Orleans, reached 550,000 
sacks annually. Now, in 1896, the steamers of 
the Pacific Mail Company, plying between San F"ran- 
cisco' and Panama, carried to the latter port nO' less 
than 564,000 sacks of coffee from the Pacific coast 
of Mexico and Central America. With the exception 
of 74,000 sacks which Vere carried to New York, 
the rest, amounting" tO' nearly 500,000 sacks, were 
carried toi Europe by means of the Panama Railroad 
and the lines connecting" Colon with Europe. Not 
a single sack of this coffee went tO' New Orleans. 
Besides, it is authoritatively stated that tramp 
steamers carried directly to- Europe around the 
straits of Magellan at least 500,000 more sacks of 
this superior coft'ee. It is obvious that with some- 
thing" like the proper degree of enterprise. New Or- 
leans ought to get this million of sacks of coffee with 
which to double its biggest coffee trade, and this 
without drawing a single sack from Brazil. 

The absurd policy that our trans-continental 
railways have stubbornly pursued has turned over 
well nigh bodily the vast trade of the Pacific coasts 
of Mexico, Central and South America tO' the Eu- 
ropeans. Forgetting" that Boston, New York and 
Philadelphia are 2,000 miles nearer Panama than 
is San Francisco, these lines have endea\'ored to 
carry the trade from the Eastern cities across the 
continent by rail, a distance of 3,500 miles, to> San 
Francisco, where in starting for South America 
this trade would be 2,000 miles farther than it was at 
the point of departure. If we would command the 
trade of South America, American goods and travel 
from the eastern ports must go directly from these 
ports tO' South America. The trade and travel from 
the territory that is tributary to the Mississippi, in- 
cluding" the northern lakes, must make their way by 
the waterways of the valley, and by its railways, to 
the gulf ports, thence tO' the markets of South Amer- 
ica. And the trade and travel nearest tO' our Pacific 
coast must make their way southward from the ports 
on that coast. That is the natural order. Then, 
from every port of the Union, American trade and 
intercourse will flow into^ South y\nierica, by the 
shortest and most direct routes, and European com- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



147 



petition will be unable to resist so formidable and 
general an advance into the territories that American 
purblindness has permitted it to monopolize. 

I have seen American war vessels pay $15 per 
ton for English coal at the port of Callao. Think 
of the effect of OhiO' river and Alabama coal going 
in sea-going barges through the isthmian canal, to 
Callao', upon the English coal brought in ships 
around the straits of Magellan, from England. 

What of the light draft steam vessels that with 
the deepening of the channels of the Mississippi and 
its tributaries, including the Hennepin Canal, will 



then be able to transport directly to the Pacific ports 
of Mexico, Central and South America, American 
goods from Chicago, Cincinnati, Louisville, Kansas 
City, St. Louis and Memphis. 

These will be the effects of the improvement of 
the waterways of the Mississippi valley, the deepen- 
ing of the passes tO' our gulf ports, the digging of 
the Nicaraguan Canal, the building of the short 
railways across Central America, and of the grand 
culmination, the construction of the intercontinental 
railway from the shores of the Caribbean Sea to 
Buenos Ayres. 




TOW AND BARGES OF PITTSBURG COAL 
The Future Source of Supply of the South American Pons 



RELATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO SOUTH AMERICA 




V. M/^V^ 









Past— Present— Prospective 



149 



MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



LETTER OF 

COL. B. M. HARROD, Member of Mississippi River Commission 



AND 



MAJ. HENRY B. RICHARDSON, Chief State Engineer of Louisiana 



New Orleans, February, 14, 1898. 
SENATOR KNUTE NELSON, Chairman, The Sub- 
Committee on the Mississippi River of the Committee 
on Co>}ime)ce, United Slates Senate: 

The contract between the United States Govern- 
ment and James B. Eads calls for the following- 
channel depths and widths: 

From deep water in the river above the Head of 
the Passes into and through South Pass, 26 feet 
of depth, of a navigable width. 

Through the jetties, 200 feet wide and 26 feet 
deep, with a cantral depth of 30 feet. 

Over the bar, at the sea end of the jetties to deep 
water, 200 feet wide and 26 feet deep, with a cen- 
tral depth of 30 feet. 

These channel dimensions were sufficient for the 
fleets of commerce of 1SY5, composed of vessels 
rarely exceeding 300 feet in length and 25 feet in 
draft. 

At the present day many ships are built 600 feet 
long, with a draft of 30 feet, and it is certain that 
these dimensions will be materially exceeded in the 
near future. 

We assume that it is the intention of the Gov- 
ernment to open the mouth of the Mississippi River 
to every ship in the world that seeks it on a peace- 
ful errand. 

We submit that the minimum channel dimen- 
sions now necessary to afford this facility to com- 
merce are as follows: 

From deep \vater in the river into the selected 
pass, a depth of 32 feet, 500 feet wide, within which 
width an intermediate depth greater than 32 feet 
would be developed. These dimensions sb'ould be 
carried through the pass and jetties to^ a point 
where the swell of the sea is felt, and from this 
point, the depth of 32 feet, 500 feet -wide, should 



be gradually increased to 35 feet, with the same 
width, at and over the bar at the sea end of the 
jetties, with such greater intermediate depths as 
would be developed. These dimensions should be 
secured at all stages of the tide and river. 

We are of opinion that it would not be practi- 
cable, and, if practicable, would not be economi- 
cal, to enlarge the South Pass and jetty channel 
sufficiently to obtain these dimensions. The diffi- 
culties would be both in securing the enlargement 
of the waterway a'nd in preserving the integrity of 
its banks. 

We submit with this communication a diagram 
showing the relative sizes of the channel as now re- 
quired by law, through South Pass, and of such a 
channel as is required by the commerce of the 
present day. 

It w'ill be observed that the cross-sectional en- 
largement called for requires the removal of 557 
cubic yards per linear foot, or 34,000,000 cubic 
yards for the entire length of 12 miles of South 
Pass. An increased width of channel at the head 
of the pass and between the jetties would also be 
necessary, involving- the practical reconstruction of 
these works at both its ends. 

The removal of such an enormous mass of ma- 
terial as above indicated from the channel of South 
Pass, by whatever means accomplished, would of 
itself plainly involve large expenditures of money 
and probably require a greater length of time than 
other parts of the work of improvement; while the 
necessary reconstruction, or at least remodeling, 
of the jetties and other Avorks at its head and mouth 
must form a large rfiare of the cost of any plan for 
its further improvement. 

To sufficiently increase the navigable depth of 
South Pass without at the same time unduly in- 



150 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



creasing its width at the expense of its existing 
natural banks, appears to us a difficult and doubt- 
ful undertaking'. That it could be so done as to 
secure an adequate channel for the commerce of 
the near future without extensive and costly works 
for the revetment of the banks, so as to prevent 
their being generally cut back into- ground too low 
to retain the water in the pass, or in some places 
breached altogether, is, at least, a matter of grave 
doubt, although of vital importance. 

Moreover, it is by no means certain that the 
work of improvement could be carried on with- 
out greatly obstructing the navigation of the pass 
during its progress. 

We are of opinion that such an outlet as the 
commerce of the Mississippi River and its trib- 
utaries now demands can be most surely and eco- 
nomically obtained by the improvement of the 
Southwest Pass b}^ means of jetties. The requisite 
width, depth and proportion of discharge already 
exists into and through that pass, excepting the 
30-foot shoal in the Mississippi River between 
Cubits Gap at the Head of the Passes. This ob- 
struction is common to all passes, and must be 
removed whichever one is selected for improve- 
ment. 

The velocity of flow in a stream varies directly 
as the square root of the product of its hydraulic 
radius (or ratio between the sectional area of the 
part of the bed it occupies and the frictional or re- 
sisting surfaces bounding it) by its slope (or the 
ratio between its fall and length). As the excess 
of the hydraulic radius of the Southwest Pass over 
that of South Pass is greater than the excess of the 
slope in South Pass over that of Southwest Pass, 
and as the scouring" power increases with the depth 
and volume it is reasonable to expect that the 
greater volume flowing throug-h Southwest Pass 
will, notwithstanding its lesser slope, give it a 
velocity and scouring power at least as great as 
that of South Pass. How much greater can only 
be determined by survey. 

We have had neither occasion nor opportunity 
to make an estimate of the cost of the improvement 
of Southwest Pass. Undoubtedly it would be con- 
siderable, but not disproportionate to the object in 
view. 

We believe, however, that many of the predic- 
tions as tO' the first cost and the difficulty of main- 
tenance have been exaggerated. It is of record 



that the increased rate of advance of the South 
Pass bar which was anticipated as the result of the 
building of jetties, both by the opponents and ad- 
vocates of the project, has not been realized. On 
the contrar}^ it has been retarded rather than ac- 
celerated. The natural annual extension of the 
South Pass bar seaward was about 100 feet per 
year before 1875. General Humphreys, a then 
chief of engineers, predicted that this rate of ad- 
vance would be, by the building of jetties, increased 
to 670 feet per year (Rep. Chief Engineers, 1874, 
p. 867). General Newton, a member of the "board 
of engineers on the improvement of the passes as 
an alternative to or in connection with the Fort St. 
Philip Canal," which reported adversely tO' jetties, 
estimated the annual advance of South Pass bar, 
after the construction of jetties, at probably 2,240 
feet, or at least 1,500 feet (pp. 884-885 of same re- 
port). 

The Board of Engineers which advised the im- 
provement of the South Pass Bar by jetties, com- 
posed of three United States engineers, three civil 
engineers, and one member of the Coast Survey, 
were of the opinion that "in an average of many 
years the rate of progress must be about the same 
as now, namely, 100 feet per annum," but they as- 
sumed that the jetties would have tO' be extended 
1,000 feet in ten years. (Report Chief Engineers, 
1875, p. 954.) 

It is needless to say that neither the apprehen- 
sions of the increased rate of bar growth nor of 
the necessity of jetty extension have been realized. 

We append the average rate of seaward exten- 
sion of the South Pass Bar since the completion 
of jetties for every curve of depth from 20 feet to 
100 feet, and for the nineteen years from 1876 to 
1895. It will be remembered that the growth be- 
fore the jetties were built was 100 feet per annum. 

The cur\'e of 20 feet depth has advanced 33 feet 
per year; 30 feet depth, 54 feet; 40 feet depth, 48 
feet; 50 feet depth, 58 feet; 60 feet depth, 86 feet; 
70 feet depth, 68 feet; 80 feet depth, 83 feet; 90 feet 
depth, 89 feet; 100 feet depth, 86 feet. (Rep. Chief 
of Engrs., 1896, App. Q, PI. 1.) 

It will be seen from these figures that the aver- 
age annual advance of the bar has been only about 
65 feet, or less than two-thirds the previous rate, 
and that the curves for 20 feet, 30 feet and 40 feet 
depths, with which navigation is immediately con- 
cerned, have only advanced, on an average, 45 feet 



Past— Present— Prospective 



151 



per annum, or less than half the general advance 
of the bar before the construction of the jetties. 

It was observed that the building' of the jetties at 
the Sulina mouth of the Danube Delta retarded 
instead of accelerating the growth of the bar at its 
mouth. Sir Charles Hartly, the engineer of the 
improvem^ent, attributed this to conditions which 
also prevail to a greater or less extent at the mouth 
of the South and Southwest passes of the Mis- 
sissippi. Under these circumstances there is no 



reasonable foundation for apprehensions of an ex- 
cessive or extraordinary increase in the annual rate 
of extension of the Southwest Pass Bar when im- 
proved, or of the jetties which should be built 
across it. 

Respectfully submitted: 

B. M. Harrod, C. E., 
Member Mississippi River Commission. 
Hemy B. Richardson, 
Chief State Engineer, Louisiana. 



PRESENT AND PROPOSED CHANNELS 



GARDEN 

ISLAND 

BAY. 

MEAN 
GULr LEVEL 



600' 



/8S0' - 

- eso'. 



■M J eso , T^Ti S*~~ 



eoo'- 



A 



EAST 
BAY. 







f^^^S^r 




- 405'- 



Sq. feet. 



Cross section of south pass from Garden Island to East Bay, solid lino— cross-sectional area 13,120 

Reciuired cliannel for commerce of the port of New Orleans, dotted line— cross-sectional area 28, 270 

Difference of cross-sectional area.... - 15, l^U 



Past— Present— Prospective 



153 




MAJ. JAMES B. QUINN, U.S.A. 



154 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



HISTORY OF ATTEMPTED IMPROVEMENTS 



By major JAMES B. QUINN, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



Standing upon the bank of the Mississippi river 
at New Orleans one is impressed with the vastness 
of its flood and the presumptively great periods of 
time covered by the progress of the delta which 
characterizes its issue into the Gulf of Mexico. To 
what races of men has its existence been known? 
Our acquaintance does not cover many years, it is 
true, but the natives who occupied the land before 
the advent of the white man point to the various 
mounds of earth which are found at numerous 
places throughout southern Louisiana as the con- 
structions of a race extinct for so great a time that 
among them there exists no traditions concerning 
this race of people who have disappeared, and who 
must have possessed some degree of civilization, as 
the pottery, relics and stone implements found in 
the mounds bear witness. 

It is reasonable to suppose that at some distant 
time in the past the mouth of the river was in the 
immediate vicinity of New Orleans, yet to-day it 
is fully 112 miles by river to the sea, and fully 45 
miles below New Orleans an Indian mound exists, 
which must certainly have been built some distance 
from the mouth, if the marshy and low condition of 
the land existed then, as now, in that vicinity. 

There is one remarkable circumstance connected 
with the flow of the river, and that is the persistency 
with which it adheres to the channel which it has 
scoured out for itself. Crevasses occur in its banks, 
and the vohmie of water escaping is sufficient to 
cause one, for the time, to believe that the river has 
changed its course; but in time the crevasse ceases 
to be other than an insignificant stream or ceases 
to flow entirely. Although the river may change 
the location of its bed sometimes by cutting out 
upon one side and filling in upon the other, or cut- 
ting through bends and forming cut-offs, the con- 
tinuity of the stream is rarely interrupted. Such 
interruptions have, hoAvever, occurred in modern 
times, as in the vicinitv of New Madrid, where the 



channel was changed by reason of an earthquake; 
and the peculiar bends at what is known as English 
Turn, below New Orleans a short distance, when 
taken into consideration with the peculiar forma- 
tion of the land between Lake Borgne and Chande- 
leur Sound, might lead to the inference that at some 
time the mouth was not far from the Chandeleur 
Island, and that the present channel was created 
through the action of some earthquake, which 
forced the stream to the westward for a short dis- 
tance and then permitted it to erode or create the 
channel which it now pursues. 

There are not lacking evidences of seismic action 
within the limits of the city of New Orleans, since 
recent excavations have brought to light the 
stumps of cypress trees which at one time stood in 
fresh-water swamps above the level of the Gulf, but 
which are now as much as 14 feet below this level, 
their preservation and general appearance indicat- 
ing a sudden subsidence. 

Some influences are always at work to direct the 
course of the river in building the earthen trough 
which forms its channel. The water is at times 
heavily charged with sediment, and this sediment is 
borne along with the current or abandoned in part 
as the current slackens; but in the end it finds a 
resting place in the swamp bordering the stream, 
where the banks are not high enough to prevent 
overflow, or it is dropped near the point where the 
river water meets the sea water and builds up at 
this place a bar, the depth of water upon which is 
invariably slight compared with the depths in the 
main body of the river. 

The manner in which these bars form and ex- 
tend influences the general direction which the 
main body of the river ultimately pursues. In- 
variably numerous branches form in the immediate 
vicinity of the mouth. These branches are known 
as "passes," and spread out like the fingers of the 
hand when distended. Each of these branches per- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



165 



forms its office of filling in the watery spaces on 
either hand, and they advance, or silt up, as the con- 
ditions of the river at the point whence they ramif)^ 
changes. The area included in their ramifications 
is called the "Delta," and this fomiation is char- 
acteristic of all silt-bearing streams which debouch 
into seas. 

To-day three passes branch from the main body 
of the river and form an extensive delta; yet if you 
retrace your steps along the bank of the river to 
New Orleans you will probably not be able to dis- 
cover any points, except such as have formed in 
recent times, where you would be certain that a 
delta existed at any time. Is it possible that this 
river in its youth flowed into the sea without a delta? 
If so, it must have been a vigorous stream compared 
with what it is to-day. 

The first pass which is noted as giving proper 
depth over its bar for the passage of vessels was 
Southeast Pass, which is now a very insignificant 
- pass indeed. Then navigation, after a time, de- 
serted this pass and sought other passes, as Pass 
a Loutre and Southwest Pass, at which passes there 
seemed to be alternations of favor, as their bars 
deepened or shoaled. With increasing needs for 
greater depths of water, efforts were made to im- 
prove these passes; and, first, there was tried the 
method of stirring up the bottom with harrows, 
which was moderately successful in securing a slight 
increase. Then an attempt was made to combine 
jetties with the stirring-up process. This failed, for 
the reason that the jetties were entirely too frail, 
and did not extend far enough to produce much 
effect. During all this time the necessities of com- 
merce grew with far greater strides than the efforts 
to maintain adequate depths. 

It took great efforts on the part of the people to 
secure sufficient funds with which to redouble the 
efforts to secure greater depths with improved 
dredging devices, and yet, with powerful dredging 
machines, the maintenance of a channel with as lit- 
tle as 20 feet depth was ineffective. Boards were 
created to report upon the subject, and much 
thought was expended upon the consideration of 
the various projects promising relief. The theories 
under which the bar formations occurred were 
fiercely debated, and the permanency of works at 
the mouths of the passes, and their adequacy, was 
thoroughly discussed. But at the root of all the 
propositions there was invariably found this recom- 



mendation : That the full amount of money re- 
quired to effect the improvement should be at once 
appropriated. 

As the estimated costs of any of the proposed 
improvements represented a vast sum at that par- 
ticular time, when river and harbor improvements 
were in their infancy, it seemed that any relief was 
impossible, since Congress feared to take the re- 
sponsibility for making such enormous appropria- 
tions for one locality. At this juncture there 
appeared a patriotic individual who seemed to ap- 
preciate the difficulties of the situation, and with a 
courage born of his convictions he proposed to 
Congress to do the work if he were to be allowed to 
follow out his ideas without restrictions, payments 
to be made to him as certain results were attained. 
There was fierce opposition to his proposition in 
certain directions, but the proposition possessed 
peculiar fascinations for Congress, if for no other 
reason that it solved the financial problem and 
promised permanent results. Above all things, it 
presented the element of economy and if applied at 
a smaller pass than that proposed, as South Pass, 
where it was believed satisfactory depths and 
widths of channel might be secured for a consider- 
ably smaller sum than it would cost to obtain paral- 
lel results elsewhere, all adverse criticism would l)e 
stifled. 

Mr. Eads certainly deserves great praise for the 
able and successful manner in which he gained his 
point, although he did have to accept the smaller 
pass. His troubles had, however, only commenced, 
because he did not possess the private fortune nec- 
essary to carry on the work to the point where 
returns might be expected. He had promised 
much, and there were many who felt positive he 
could not accomplish all he promised. Outside as- 
sistance could not be obtained without paying 
great premiums, and many physical difficulties were 
experienced which were not anticipated. The 
much-vaunted claim that the channel, if properly 
constructed, would, unaided by dredging or other 
stirring-up processes, sufficiently strengthen the 
current to scour out the bottom with great rapidity 
was not fully realized, and dredging was found to 
be necessary; but the people were disgusted with 
the dredging operations to secure proper channels 
through the bars, and the necessity for dredging 
weakened confidence in the undertaking. It re- 
quired extraordinai-y exertions on the part of Mr. 



156 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



Eads to restore confidence and prove, in face of 
the fiercely contested claims that the bar would ad- 
vance with greater rapidity in consequence of the 
jetties than before, that no advance of the bar had 
taken place as intimated. 

Mr. Eads's perseverance under such adverse cir- 
cumstances is truly remarkable, and although he did 
go to Congress and secure material concessions 
relative to channel widths and depths, and methods 
of payment, he certainly succeeded in giving- to 
commerce a far better channel than was deemed es- 
sential, although not ecjual to that promised, and 
which has lasted fairly well up to the present time. 

The theories propounded for the explanation of 
the growth of the bar at the mouth of a pass, as 
Southwest Pass for example, are chiefly stated in 
Humphreys and Abbot's Physics and Hydraulics 
of the Mississippi River. Briefly stated, the bar- 
building material consists of two varieties of earthy 
matter, that which is in suspension, and that which 
is pushed along the bottom. AVhen this material 
reaches the sea end, it is deposited, owing to the 
loss of current in the stream which transports it. 
The volume of water issues in a fan shape from the 
channel formed by the banks. Its energy is dis- 
sipated upon coming in contact with the salt water, 
which opposes its exit, and the material which is 
carried along the bottom is soon brought to rest, 
Avhile the lighter portion, held in suspension, is 
widely disseminated (owing to the fresh water glid- 
ing on the salt) and is deposited at much greater 
distances from the mouth. The material held in 
suspension forms, therefore, the foundation upon 
which the weightier particles are eventually placed. 
The loss of energy, due to the resistance of 
the denser salt water and the lateral expansion of 
the stream, causes the shoaling of the water, and the 
depth of water maintained upon the bar is the result 
of an equilibrium between the eroding and deposit- 
ing forces of the current. The form of the bar is 
greatly influenced by several forces, such as winds, 
waves, and countercurrents. If a current flows 
from left to right across the mouth of the pass, 
looking seaward, the material will be deposited in 
a greater quantity on the right-hand side of the 
pass, and vice versa. If the winds influence the 
coimterctu'rents, then the direction of the prevailing 
winds will determine upon which hand the greatest 
deposits will occur. The waves have a tendency to 
flatten the bar and fill up all channels across it. 



The seaward slope of the bar is greatly influenced 
by the combined action of the currents and waves, 
being steeper on the side from which the currents 
come. If the efTects of the countercurrents are 
not continuous, the result is that the channel across 
the bar is more or less deflected by the deposits on 
the side opposite that from which the currents ar- 
rive, and is more or less inclined toward the side 
from which the countercurrents proceed, or 
against the countercurrent. The advance of the 
bar will not be symmetrical with the axis of the 
pass. If, however, the countercurrents are feeble, 
the advance of the bar will be more or less sym- 
metrical with respect to this axis. 

If the spreading of the water can be prevented 
until the crest of the bar is reached, the current will 
be sufUciently strong, generally speaking, to pro- 
ject the material conveyed by it to some consider- 
able distance beyond the point of issue; the deposit 
necessarily takes place in deep water, and a con- 
siderable time must elapse before the normal con- 
ditions are restored. The natural rate of progress 
of the bar does not give a proper conception of the 
time which will be required to bring about a resto- 
ration of normal conditions after the confining of 
the issuing water has been effected. In the first 
place, the point at which the normal crest of the 
bar must form will be in very deep water, and all 
the areas in advance and latterly must be filled up 
before this bar will be able to maintain itself. Sec- 
ondly, this bar will build up faster, for the reason 
that the heavy matter is deposited over a shorter 
arc. 

If a countercurrent sweeps across the axis of 
issue, much of the bar-building material will be 
deflected to one side and the advance of the bar will 
be retarded, but the direction of the entrance will 
be changed, since the channel through the new bar 
will incline toward the point of direction whence 
the countercurrent arrives, in which case the subse- 
quent prolongation of confining works, or "jetties," 
as they are called, would be at an angle to the orig- 
inal line, and give rise to irregularities of channel 
between them. 

When the advance of the bar is symmetrical the 
restoration of normal conditions is much more 
rapid, but the prolongation of the jetties is apt to 
be much simpler. 

The improvement of Southwest Pass involves 
some considerations not heretofore fully touched 



Past— Present— Prospective 



157 



upon. The character of the bar is somewhat differ- 
ent from the other passes. Numerous mud lumps 
arise at times, some of these directly in the channel. 
These lumps introduce complex conditions at 
times, by stopping the regular flow of the water 
and so causing deviations of currents and abnormal 
deposits. The stability of any jetty construction 
is imperiled by these strange formations. To pre- 
dict just what is going to happen in such a locality 
is impossible, and all estimates for improvement 
have to have a large margin for contingencies. 
The efforts of all former improvers were futile for 
the reason that insufficient funds were provided to 
make all work secure against all circumstances. 
To simply rely upon dredging at such an exposed 
place is futile, if any considerable increase of depth 
is desired. To rely upon construction works un- 
aided by dredging is simply to invite disaster, since 
a single mud lump arising in the middle of the 
channel would block everything for a long time. 
It would undoubtedly have to be removed by 
dredging. A combination of dredging and con- 
tracting jetties promises the only solution of the 
problem of securing and maintaining deep water at 
this entrance to the Mississippi River for a profit- 
able interval of time. 

In this connection it may be well to review at 
length the various attempts made to improve 
Southwest Pass, and endeavor to ascertain the 
causes and conditions wdiich determined success 
or failure. 

The first appropriation for the improvement of 
the entrance to the jMississippi River was made in 
1837, and upon the recommendations of a Board of 
Engineers an attempt was made to open the South- 
west Pass by using the ordinary bucket drag. No 
permanent improvement was effected, as a single 
storm sufficed to obliterate all the work which had 
been done. Nothing further was done until 1852, 
when an appropriation of $75,000 was made for 
opening "a ship channel of sufficient capacity to ac- 
commodate the wants of commerce;" and it was 
further provided that the said money should be ap- 
plied by "contract," and that the contract should 
be "limited to the amount appropriated." A mixed 
naval and engineer Board was convened by the 
Secretary of War to decide how the appropriation 
should be applied. This Board consisted of Com- 
modore W. K. Latimer, United States Navy; Maj. 
W. N. Chase, United States Engineers; Maj. G. T. 



Beauregard, United States Engineers; and Capt. 
J. G. Barnard, United States Engineers; all of 
whom had served on the Gulf coast. 

This Board reported that no other plan seemed 
capable of obtaining any important results than 
that of "stirring up" the bottom, and in accord- 
ance with this report a contract was entered into 
with the towboat association, by which a channel 
through the bar of Southwest Pass, IS feet deep 
and 300 feet wide, was to be made. The harrow- 
ing and dragging process employed by the towboat 
association proved successful, and a depth of chan- 
nel of 18 feet was maintained for a whole year. 

It is important to remark that this Board recom- 
mended that in case that the "stirring-up" process 
failed, jetties be constructed, remarking that the 
"project of jetties is based upon the simple fact 
that by confining the waters which noAV escape use- 
lessly in lateral directions to a narrow channel, the 
depth of this narrow channel must be increased. 
In other words, the existing bar must be cut away." 
As a consequence of no further appropriations 
being made until 1856, the IS-foot channel disap- 
peared. The sum of $330,000 was appropriated in 
the year mentioned for the improvement of the 
passes. A Board of Engineers recommended that 
the bid of the towboat association be accepted for 
keeping open Southwest Pass by stirring up the 
bottom, and that the method of keeping open a 
pass by jetties and closure of lateral passes be ap- 
plied to Pass a Loutre. The Secretary of War 
decided that the jetty system be appHed to both 
passes, and a contract was accordingly made with 
Messrs. Craig & Rightor to do this work. The 
contractors began at the Southwest Pass by build- 
ing on the east side a jetty about a mile long, 
"composed of a single row of pile planks, strength- 
ened at intervals by piles." The structure was en- 
tirely too frail, and Avas so seriously damaged by 
storms that the plan was abandoned, and the con- 
tractors were permitted to resort to the stirring-up 
process, by which an 18-foot channel was secured 
and maintained as long as the operation was con- 
tinued. 

In 1867 an appropriation of $75,000 was made 
and a contract entered into for "stirring up," which 
was not, however, executed. In the years 1867- 
1870 the Government built a powerful dredge boat 
of special design, which was operated under the 
very best of conditions, but since it simply func- 



158 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



tioned by stirring up the material with a powerful 
propeller, and deflecting the disturbed material up 
into the current with a deflector, it did not succeed 
in maintaining- a much deeper channel than that 
former])^ secured by other means. 

The necessities of commerce made it imperative 
that a better channel connection with the Missis- 
sippi River be obtained at an early date. Every- 
body was tired of the uncertain results secured bv 
dredging on the bars, and as other methods of se- 
curing these objects had been advocated, a resolu- 
tion of the House of Representatives was passed 
March 14, 1871. providing: '"That the Secretary 
of War be, and he is hereby, requested to cause an 
examination and survey, with plans and estimates 
of cost, to be made by an officer of engineers, for 
a ship canal to connect the Mississippi River witli 
the Gulf of Mexico, or the navigable waters thereof, 
of suitable location and dimensions for military, 
naval, and commercial purposes, and that he report 
upon the feasibility of the same tO' the House of 
Representatives." 

The survey and estimates for a canal, near Fort 
St. Philip, were submitted by Capt. C. W. Howell, 
Corps of Engineers, to a Board of Engineer Ofli- 
cers, composed of Col. J. G. Barnard, Lieut. Col. 
John Newton, Maj. O. A. Gillmore, Maj. G. K. 
Warren, Maj. William P. Craighill, Maj. G. AVeit- 
zel, and Capt. C. W. Howell. 

This Board, with the exception of one member, 
reported that the construction of the canal, with a 
depth of 27 feet and bottom width of 200 feet, hav- 
ing at the ri\-er end a lock with chamber 500 feet 
long, 60 feet width, and depth over sill 2.5 feet, was 
feasible and desirable, and was estimated to cost 
$10,273,000. The dissenting member, General 
Barnard, claimed, in a minority report, that the 
experience gained with the dredges was sufficient 
to warrant still better results, and that the advan- 
tages of an open mouth were sufficient to warrant 
further experiment in this method at Southwest 
Pass, but, he reasoned, that the success of the jetty 
system, as applied at the Saluna mouth of the Dan- 
ube, presaged even greater success if applied at 
South Pass, and warranted its consideration. 

Gen. A. A. Humphrey's, Chief of Engineers, 
United States Army, criticised General Barnard's 
preference for jetties, and estimates tlmt the rapid 
advance of the bar will make the extensions of the 
jetties costly and their maintenance uncertain; that 
the earthv matter brought to the crest of the bar 



was not deposited in deeper water, as was con- 
tended, but was laid upon the lighter material which 
was carried in suspension considerable distances be- 
yond the bar and caused the greater portion of the 
fill, since it was by far the greater portion of the 
matter transported by the river; that the result of 
this was to really shoal the water in advance of the 
bar in such manner that the bar really advanced 
into shoaler water, and if the jetties were built the 
material would be restricted as to the areas on 
either hand, and the advance would be greatly ac- 
celerated in consequence. 

General Newton, in a review of General Barn- 
ard's dissenting report relative to the application 
of jetties for the improvement of the enti-ance to 
the Mississippi River, practically reiterates General 
Humphrey's views and questions the permanency 
of the improvement, for the reason that the pro- 
longation of the jetties to keep pace with the rapid 
increase in the bar would introduce so much re- 
sistance to the flow of water, in time, that the water 
would seek some other pass; furthermore, the pro- 
longation of the main stream must be considered, 
since it is not known whether the delta advances 
simultaneously with the prolongation of the main 
stream, or whether the main stream did not pro- 
long its course violent]}' by breaking through at 
some point, and so discarding the passes which 
have for some time been advancing into the Gulf 
at the average rate of 262 feet per annum. 

One of the most remarkalale difi^erences of opin- 
ion in these discussions is that Avhich relates to 
the annual advance of the bar formation. Genera! 
Barnard claimed that if the jetties were extended 
to the required depth of channel beyond the crest 
of the bar, and the channel deepened by dredging, 
the force of the current would be sufficient to pro- 
ject the material so far into the Gulf that the bar 
would not reach the height of the bottom of the 
proposed channel until the conditions as to fill and 
distribution of material in the Gulf approximated 
that which existed previous to the improvement. 
General Newton estimated that the bar advance at 
Southwest Pass would be as much as 1,014 feet per 
annum, and at South Pass 2,240 feet, the more 
rapid ad^-ance for the smaller pass being due to the 
greater contraction of the channel between the 
jetty heads. 

The report of the Board upon the canal project 
was followed bv the proposition of ]Mr. Eads, in 



Past— Present— Prospective 



159 



February, 1S74, to improve the entrance to the 
Mississippi River by jetties at Southwest Pass for 
the sum of $10,000,000, payments to begin when 
a depth of 20 feet was secured, and continuing" as 
certain greater depths were secured until 2S feet 
Iiad been secured and $5,000,000 had been paid. 
The remaining $3,000,000 to be paid in instaUments 
of $500,000 each, conditional upon the permanence 
of the channel for ten years. 

A fierce controversy^ resulted as a consecjuence of 
this proposition between the advocates of the canal 
on one side and the supporters of the jetty scheme 
on the other, and since the principal part of the 
discussion was theoretical, it was impossible to de- 
cide which was the better until further investiga- 
tions of the jetty methods could be had. Accord- 
ingly, in June, 18Y4, an act was passed constituting 
a Commission to investigate and report upon the 
improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi River. 
This Commission was organized pursuant to the 
following order : 

General Orders, 
No. 74. 

War Department, Adjutant- 
General's Office, 

Washington, July, 2, 1874. 
Lieut. Col. H. G. Wright, Lieut. Col. B. S. Alex- 
ander, and Maj. C. B. Comstock, Corps of En- 
gineers, Lhiited States Army; Prof. Henry Mitchell, 
United States Coast Survey; T. E. Sickels, W. Mil- 
nor Roberts, and H. D. Whitcomb, are, by the 
President, hereby appointed a Board of Engineers 
under the provisions of section 3 of the act ap- 
proved June 23, 1874, entitled "An act making 
appropriations for the repair, preservation, and 
completion of certain public works on rivers and 
harbors, and for other purposes," for the purpose of 
making "a survey of the mouth of the Mississippi 
River, with a view to determine the best method 
of obtaining and maintaining a depth of water suf- 
ficient for the purposes of commerce, either by a 
canal from said river to the waters of the Gulf or 
by deepening one or more of the natural outlets of 
said river." They are hereby directed to assemble 
at New York City, N. Y., on the 20th instant, or as 
soon thereafter as practicable, for the purpose of 
organizing and entering upon the performance of 
their duties. Lieutenant-Colonel Wright is desig- 
nated as president of the Board. H. D. Whitcomb 
is designated to disburse, under the direction of the 



Board, the money appropriateil to defray the cost 
of the survey. 

The following is the section of the act of Con- 
gress above referred to : 

"Sec. 3. That a Board of Engineers, to be com- 
posed of three from the Army, one from the Coast 
Survey, and three from civil life, be appointed by 
the President ; which said board shall make a survey 
of the mouth of the Mississippi River, with a view 
to determine the best method of obtaining and 
maintaining a depth of water sufficient for the pur- 
poses of commerce, either by a canal from said idver 
to the waters of the Gulf, or by deepening one or 
more of the natural outlets of said river; and said 
board shall make a full and detailed estimate and 
statement of the cost of each of said plans, and 
shall report the same, together with their opinion 
thereon, showing which of all said plans they deem 
preferable, giving their reasons therefor, to the Sec- 
retaiy of W^ar, tO' be presented at the commence- 
ment of the second session of the Eorty-third Con- 
gress; and that the sum of $25,000, or so much 
thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropri- 
ated, out of any funds in the Treasury not other- 
wise appropriated, to defray the cost of said sur- 
vey." 

Approved, June 23, 1874. 

By order of the Secretary of War : 

THOMAS M. VINCENT, 

Assistant Adjutant-General. 

In the report of this Board, submitted January 
13, 1875, it is stated: "As thei-e has been no ex- 
ample in this country of the improvement of a large 
river mouth so as to give an outlet to the sea, with ' 
much deeper water than naturally exists on its bar, 
the Board, in its consideration of what experience 
has shown elsewhere to be practicable in such a 
case, has found its only examples in the mouths of 
European rivers. 

"There has Ijeen great difference of opinion 
among engineers, not only in this country, but in 
Europe, as to whether the best method of securing 
a deep-water outlet from a sediment-bearing river 
which empties, like the Mississippi, the Vistula, the 
Danube, and the Rhone, into a nearly tideless sea, 
is by jetties or by a lateral canal." 

In order to gain a better knowledge of the vari- 
ous rivers abroad which have been improved, the 
Board visited the rivers named, and also the North 
Sea and Suez Canal. 



160 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



The result of these examinations abroad (while 
additional information has been g-ained on almost 
every point relating to the problem before them) 
has been to largely strengthen their estimate of the 
value for jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi 
River of the fascine dikes used in Holland by Ca- 
lend in the improvement of the Mass mouth of the 
Rhine. 

The Board visited the locality of the proposed 
canal below New Orleans, and fully considered its 
plans, etc. It estimated the cost to be $10,296,500 
for construction, and $60,885 per year for cost of 
maintenance. 

In considering the method of deepening the 
water on one of the bars by jetties, the Board 
makes the following statements : 

"On examining a map of the mouths of this 
river it will be seen that each pass, through the 
greater part of its length, has a nearly constant 
width, but that it widens toward its bar, so that on 
its outer crest it has several times its ordinary 
width, while its depth is less in something like the 
same proportion. The cause of this change seems 
to be the following: The river water as it ap- 
proaches the bar is somewhat above the level of the 
Gulf, and so tends to diverge, the stream thus be- 
coming thinner and wider. This thinning and wid- 
ening is aided by the greater density of the salt 
water, which makes the fresh water rise over it on 
a slope that is steeper as the velocity of the river 
water is less. This thinned sheet of water forms 
its own banks as the bar moves out to sea; but, as 
in this Avide, shallow stream the friction is great 
near the banks, deposits begin there, the stream is 
narrowed and deepened, and in time that part of 
the stream obtains the form already assumed by 
the portion above, which allows the water to pass 
with less resistance. To-day, while there are but 
7 feet of water on the outer crest of the South Pass 
bar, it is yet only about 12,000 feet from the bar to 
30 feet of water above the bar, and it follows, if 
the bar's progress into the Gulf has been for the 
last one hundred and twenty years the same as for 
the last thirty-six years (about 100 feet per annum), 
that one hundred and twenty years ago the outer 
crest of the South Pass bar was where now there 
is a deep channel. As the bars move out to sea, 
the river is, then, all the time eroding a channel of 
the characteristic deep-water cross section behind 
and through them. The object of the jetties is to 



aid and hasten this erosion. If, starting from a 
point in a pass above this bar, where there are now 
30 feet of water, we build jetties which so confine 
the pass that it shall have the width all the way 
to deep water it now has at the starting point, we 
shall be helping the pass to assume the deep-water 
cross-section it would ultimately take, and by aid- 
ing it, if necessary, by dredging, should be able to 
reduce at pleasure the time required for the pro- 
cess. 

"This plan is then adopted for the improvement 
of a natural outlet, namely, to begin parallel dikes 
at the banks of a pass where there are now 30 feet 
of water in the middle and carry them over the bar 
to 30 feet water outside (unless the depth is ob- 
tained before the dikes have reached the 30-foot 
curve), allowing the river to erode the bottom be- 
tween the dikes till the waterway between them 
everywhere has the same cross section as at their 
beginning, aiding the erosion by dredging or stir- 
ring- if it is not rapid enough without. 

"The Board considered the question of limiting 
the waterway to the cross section of 30 feet maxi- 
mum depth by converging jetties on the bar, and 
by spur dikes in the Pass above, instead of by paral- 
lel dikes. In view of the lack of experience in such 
work in this country, and of the danger of exces- 
sive scour around the ends of spur dikes, it was 
deemed advisable to adopt parallel dikes as offer- 
ing fewer contingencies and less difficulty of con- 
struction. The depth of 30 feet has been chosen 
in order that some time may elapse before the bar, 
which will form at the sea end of the jetties, can 
have less than 25 feet at mean low water upon it, 
that being the minimum depth which it is desired 
to maintain. 

"Having adopted a general plan for the improve- 
ment of one of the natural outlets, it remains to- fix 
on that one. As the improvement of any will be 
costly, but one should be improved, and that should 
be made adequate for all purposes. 

"The passes which have been most carefully con- 
sidered are the South and Southwest. 

"In comparing these passes, it is seen that while 
the average width of the body of the South Pass is 
700 feet, that of Southwest Pass is about 1,400. 
The greater width is more fa\^orable to navigation; 
but, in the opinion of the board, the South Pass, 
when improved, will be adequate to the present 
and prospective wants of commerce. The esti- 



Past— Present— Prospective 

mated sum required for the construction and main 



161 



tenance of the works for the improvement of the 
South Pass is $7,942,110, and for Southwest Pass 
is $16,053,124. It is assumed that the Southwest 
Pass bar advances about three times as fast as the 
South Pass bar. 

"The South Pass being entirely adequate, the 
much greater cost of improving the larger pass 
would not, in the opinion of the Board, be war- 
ranted either by the somewhat greater ease of en- 
tering it in storms or of navigating it when once 
inside. The former is 12.9 miles long, the latter 
being 18 miles, and is lengthened only about one- 
third as fast as the latter. 

"The cost of improving Pass a Loutre would 
also be far greater than for South Pass, without ad- 
vantages sufficient to justify the increased cost. The 
South Pass has the advantage that the works for 
its improvement, which would require at least two 
or three years for their execution, would in no way 
interfere with commerce. The Board is, therefore, 
of opinion that if any natural outlet is improved it 
should be the South Pass. 

"The South Pass of the Mississippi is 12.9 miles 
long, has an average width of 730 feet and a mini- 
mum interior channel depth of 29 feet. It is 11,900 
feet from the 30-foot curve inside the pass across the 
bar to 30 feet outside. The minimum depth on the 
bar is 7 feet. It discharges at its mouth about 
57,000 cubic feet of water per second and about 
22,000,000 cubic yards of sediment in suspension 
per annum. It has a shoal at its head, with a mini- 
mum depth on it in channel of 17 feet. 

"For the improvement of the South Pass the 
Board recommends parallel dikes or jetties con- 
structed of brush, fascines, and stone, in the same 
general way as those used by Mr. Calend at the 
mouth of the Maas. 

"These dikes should begin at the two' banks of 
the pass, about 1,650 feet below the South Pass 
light-house, where the river has a width of nearly 
900 feet and a maximum depth of 30 feet. They 
should run in straight lines parallel to each other 
in the direction of the pass to where the water is 
30 feet deep outside of the bar, provided it should 
be necessary to carry them so far as tO' secure 30 
feet depth. The dikes for the first 7,100 feet should 
be 10 feet wide on top; should then widen gradually 
to 20 feet in a further distance of 2,050 feet; should 
then gradually widen to 50 feet, which is to be the 



width in 30 feet of water. Ait present this last length 
would be about 2,750 feet and the total length of 
each dike 11,900 feet. The first 7,100 feet of the 
dikes to- have side slopes of two-thirds (two vertical 
to three horizontal), the rest to have side slopes 
of one-fourth down to 15 feet below water, and 
beneath that depth slopes of one-half; the top of 
the dikes to be rounded and paved, the crown ris- 
ing tO' high water of spring tides. 

"The question of the average annual expense of 
prolonging the jetties is a very serious one. It 
depends on the annual advance of the 25-foot curve, 
that depth being required. At present the muddy 
water issuing from the South Pass spreads out in 
somewhat of a fan shape, the handle of the fan be- 
ing at the mouth of the pass and the ribs several 
miles in length. 

"If the proposed jetties were instantly completed 
and the new channel scoured out essentially the 
same amount of sediment would be spread out in 
fan shape, but, from the greater velocity of the issu- 
ing water, the ribs of the fan would be longer while 
the handle would be narrower. More of the sedi- 
ment would at first be deposited far out in the Gulf 
than before. 

"But with the present rate of advance the 25-foot 
curve one hundred and twenty years ago was about 
12,000 feet above its present position, and if the vol- 
ume of water carried by the pass is kept the same, 
neglecting the slight difference in slope of the Gulf 
bottom outside the present bar, in about one hun- 
dred and twenty years a new end for the pass will 
probably be formed of the same general shape as 
the lower 12,000 feet of the present pass. It makes 
little difference, in the whole time required to ac- 
complish the work, whether the same volume of 
water flows out at starting over the present shallow 
bar or from between two dikes which force the 
water to take a depth of 30 feet. In an average 
of many years the rate of progress must be about 
the same as now, namely, 100 feet per annum, the 
volume of water being kept as at present, and it is 
on this basis that the average annual cost of exten- 
sion, namely, $130,000, has been computed. 

"It has already been stated that it is proposed to 
obtain a depth of 30 feet between the jetties, in 
order that some years may elapse before the shoal 
which will form beyond the jetties can have on it 
less than the required depth of 25 feet in the chan- 
nel through it. There are no precise data for esti- 



162 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



mating this lieriod. Going seaward from the upper 
end of the proposed dikes, the slope of the bottom 
of the South Pass is about 1-440. This slope doubt- 
less depends mainly on the velocity of the water 
flowing' through it and on the lifting of the fresh 
water by the salt. As the causes remain essentially 
the same, it would seem natural that the new end 
of the South Pass to be formed by the sediment 
passing through the jetties should at least have the 
same bottom slope. If this assumption were true, 
the bottom would at last shoal from 30 tO' 25 feet 
in a distance of 5 by 440=2,200 feet, and the time 
required would be about twenty-two years. This 
time would be shortened by twO' causes : First, 
there are about 3,000,000 cubic yards of material 
to be scoured out between the jetties, thus increas- 
ing the general bar accretion by that amount and 
hastening the advance of the pass. As the scour 
would be distributed over several years, and as the 
South Pass carries about 22,000,000 cubic yards 
of sediment in suspension annually to the Gulf, the 
effect of this 3,000,000 yards cannot be relatively 
large; second: at and below the point where it is 
proposed to begin the jetties the river velocity now 
diminishes very slowly, as it is confined by a slowly 
widening channel, while when the jetties are com- 
pleted and the channel scoured out the water issu- 
ing from them will, having at first no banks to 
confine it, spread out more rapidly, thus, perhaps, 
losing velocity more rapidly and forming a steeper 
seaward slope on the bottom than now exists at the 
upper end of the proposed dikes. 

"This steeper slope seaward from the 30 feet of 
water between the jetties would give a shoal of 25 
feet at a distance of less than 2,200 feet, and in a 
period of less than tv/enty-two years. The period 
is uncertain; experience alone can determine the 
precise time. Different estimates made by this 
method, and others by different members of the 
board, vary largely, and ten years have been as- 
sumed for the purpose of estimate. In ten years, 
then, it is assumed that the jetties will have to be 
lengthened i,000 feet. As shoals will have formed 
at the ends of the jetties, it has also been assumed 
that the extension will be in water averaging 15 
feet in depth. 

"It has been stated that there is a shoal at the 
head of South Pass- with but lY feet of water on 
it. At present this shoal is scouring' out. Should 
that scouring not giv" h depth as great as at the 



shoalest point below in the pass, the construction 
of a dike to deflect more water into it would become 
necessary. Should the South Pass increase much 
beyond its present size, it might become necessary 
to put an apron on the bottom and sides of the pass, 
near its head, to stop that increase." 

The estimated cost of the jetties at South Pass 
were, for construction, $5,342,110, and $130,000 
per annum for cost of extension, etc. For South- 
west Pass a similar estimate was made, as follows : 
First cost of jetties, $8,253,124; annual cost of ex- 
tension, $390,000. 

The Board felt certain that the required depths 
could be secured by jetty constructions, and recom- 
mended that South Pass be improved in this man- 
ner, and concludes that if Congress adopts this 
system that the whole amount should be appropri- 
ated at once or in some way be made available. 

Gen. H. G. Wright withheld his signature for the 
reason that he did not believe the method prom- 
ised an adequate and permanent channel, which 
the canal project did, and therefore gave his prefer- 
ence to the latter method. 

Soon after the presentation of this report Mr. 
Fads made a new proposition to Congress to make 
a channel 30 feet deep at the mouth of Southwest 
Pass for $8,000,000, and maintain it for twenty 
years for an annual sum of $150,000, a first pay- 
ment of $500,000 to be made when a depth of 22 
feet was reached, and other amounts as greater 
depths were reached until 30 feet was reached, 
when a certain sum was to be held as security for 
maintenance, one-half to be paid at the end of ten 
years, the other at the end of the twenty years. 
The complete statement is not repeated, for the 
reason that it was not accepted. 

Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, op- 
posed this measure, for the reasons, mainly, that 
the improvement would not be permanent, and that 
the rapid advance of the bar would render its main- 
tenance inordinately expensive. 

Mr. Eads's able presentation of his case before 
the House committee, backed by the favorable re- 
port of the Board, sufficed to withdraw all oppo- 
sition, practically, in the House; but when the mat- 
ter went to the Senate, the possibility of gaining 
the same results at South Pass at far less cost in- 
fluenced the members to advise Mr. Fads that it 
he would not agree to improve the smaller pass for 
$5,250,000, with the same guarantee, and agree to. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



16c 



maintain the 30-foot depth for twent)- years at 
$100,000 per annum, the work would not be placed 
in his hands. He consented to this, and the bill 
covering the conditions of the work, modified as to 
cost and location, became a law March 3, 1S75. 

The jetties at South Pass were declared finished 
in July, 1879, at which time the payment for main- 
tenance began to run. and the maintenance of the 
required channel has been complied with, with the 
exception of about five hundred days, to date, when 
the legal channel did not exist. The deficiencies 
have been distributed between the pass itself, the 
jetty channel, and the channel through the bar in 
the Gulf in advance of the ends of the jetties. 

The channel in the pass proper is required to 
have a navigable depth of 26 feet throughout, from 
the deep water of the main ri^•er to the beginning 
of the jetty channel. 

The jetty channel is required to have a channel 
26 feet deep and 200 feet wide, with a central depth 
of 30 feet without regard to width, this channel to 
continue to the deep water of the Gulf. 

Between the river and the jetty channel the pass 
has filled considerably in places, the tendency ap- 
parently being to assume an uniform cross section 
and plope. Between the jetties filling has occurred 
at intervals; but the channel is maintained with 
reasonable success by dredging. Beyond the jet- 
ties a bar has formed, through which a channel is 
maintained with but little dredging so far. A chart 
showing the advance of the different curves of 
depth between 1879 and 1896 beyond the sea ends 
of the South Pass jetties is attached. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Upon examining this chart, the manner of the re- 
forming of the bar is disclosed. The greater por- 
tion of the sediment ejected by the pass is deposited 
to tlie westward. The 20 and 30 foot curves ex- 
hibit this in a marked degree in the immediate 
vicinity of the jetty ends. The 40-foot curve seems 
to be less affected in the area examined, but prob- 
ably inclines shorewards on the easterly side upon 
the prolongation of the line shown. The 30-foot 
curve of 1896 probably inclines shorewards on the 
east, like the 40-foot, but all the curves beyond the 
40-foot curve of 1896 are veiw irregular, though 
possessing identical features. Three distinct val- 
leys are indicated as penetrating the formation in 
front of the jetty ends.; a very pronounced one to 
the east, a second similar one to the west, and one 



not quite so pronounced between these. Below the 
40-foot curve of 1896 a ridge extends as far as the 
100-foot curve, and probably beyond. This ridge 
is in line with the 30-foot channel between the jet- 
ties, and that through the bar to the eastward of 
the axis. The ridge to the west of this is not so 
marked, and the middle valley may almost be dis- 
regarded as of little consequence compared with 
the very pronounced valleys to the east and west of 
it. These deep valleys have their center lines in- 
clined nearly in the direction of the prevailiiag wind, 
and are due to wind and tidal currents, which op- 
pose the issuing stream and deflect it to one side or 
the other. Between these valleys the important 
advance of the bar has taken place, since this in- 
cluded area is in front of the jetty entrance. 

The shoal which has formed directly in front of 
the entrance is the outgrowth of several conditions : 
First, the sediment which was deflected by the cross 
current; second, the finer material which floated 
bej'ond the influence of the river current, and was 
returned by the action of the wind and waves. This 
shoal is having more and more influence upon the 
issuing current, and tends to deflect it more and 
more into the face of the prevailing winds. The 
ultimate effect will be to cause the direct interfer- 
ence of the cross current and issuing currents, and 
a consequently more rapid deposition of the ma- 
terial to the eastward of the line of issue. The 
speedy restoration of normal conditions will then 
result, for the influence of the jetties will no longer 
prevail, the extension of the bar will resemble that 
before the improvement was undertaken. The ma- 
terial to the eastward of the jetties will be far less 
than that to the westward, however, and when the 
extension of the jetties to meet the new conditions 
becomes necessary, the east jetty wiU not have the 
width of foundation to insure its permanence for 
any considerable length of time. 

The issue of the water from the opening between 
the jetty ends shows that the force of the current 
is sufficient under present conditions to not only 
carry the sediment some distance in advance of 
the jetties, but to excavate a basin of considerably 
greater depth than that in the channel between the 
jetties. The force of flow is therefore sufficient to 
drive the salt water from in front of the entrance 
and hold it in abeyance for the greater part of the 
time that the issuing current is charged with a ma- 
terial amount of sediment, and during low river. 



164 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River • 



when there is no sediment in suspension, the ebb 
tide is sufficiently strong to maintain this small 
basin and the channel through the bar, the shoaling 
effect of the tidal current being greater between 
the jetties than outside. 

Unless the sediment borne to the mouth of the 
jetties could be entirely eliminated, it is folly to 
imagine that such a system of improvement can 
•give permanent results, and although the prolonga- 
tion of the jetties may not be recjuired, and, indeed, 
he. impossible for some time, there surely comes a 
time when prolongation must take place, and this 
-extension will be both expensive and difficult. 

The prolongation will have to be made on the 
narrow ridge directly in front of the jetties, where 
the shoaling is greatest and the duration of the 
beneficial results the least, or a lateral course must 
be pursued with far less promises of durability. The 
system itself is incapable of being made to endure 
for all time, but must, in the natural order of things, 
come to a positive end and be abandoned. 

The principles of bar formation are practically as 
stated by Humphreys and Abbot, so long as the 
natural conditions exist. The bar advance is ex- 
plained and the theory is sufficiently exact to meet 
the situation, but when the natural conditions are 
disturbed by the construction of confining jetties 
the advance of the bar is not made in exactly the 
same manner, since the issuing water has sufficient 
force to carry the material some distance into the 
sea, where the deposit takes place in deep water 
and where the re-formation of the natural bars com- 
mence and grow, until the conditions in advance 
have been restored, and the lateral areas built up so 
as to form natural banks or shoals, and so bring 
about a restoration of natural conditions. 

The natural rate of advance of the bar gives an 
approximation of the time which may be estimated 
to elapse from the time when the jetties are com- 
pleted to the time when the bar will have re-formed, 
or to" the time when the further extension of the 
jetties will be necessary, supposing the conditions 
at the Head of the Passes to continue favorable. 

At South Pass the depth of channel required is 
30 feet at flood tide. The 30-foot ciuwe has ad- 
vanced between 1879 and 1896 a distance of about 
700 feet. Measured on a line from the most ad- 
vanced point of the curve of 1879, and parallel with 
the present 30-foot channel through the bar to the 
westward of this, the advance has been much 



greater. On the prolongation of this line, where the 
advance of the 40-foot curve has been the least, the 
advance of the iO-foot curve has been 900 feet, and 
practically occupies the position of the earlier 50- 
foot curve. Beyond the 40-foot curve the advance 
of the other curves have been far greater, the 60- 
foot curve of 1896 coinciding with the SO-foot curve 
of 1879. 

The distance between the 30-foot curve outside 
the natural mouth and 40-foot curve before the 
jetties were built was 1,600 feet, or a slope between 
of 1-160, and between the 40-foot and 50-foot 
cuiwes the slope was 1-20. At present the slope 
between the 30 and 40 foot curves is 1-90, or much 
steeper, and between the 40-foot and 50-foot, meas- 
ured on the same line to the nearest point of 50-foot 
curve, about the same slope (1-90), much flatter. 

Before improvement, the distance from the inside 
30-foot curve of depth to the 20-foot curve of depth 
was about 2,900 feet. The end of the 30-foot chan- 
nel was well inside of the protection of the natural 
banks; but measuring off the 2,900 feet from the 
ends of the jetties, in the direction heretofore used, 
the end of this measurement would fall about mid- 
way between the most advanced and least advanced 
positions of the present 40-foot curve of depth in 
the Gulf, as the filling at this locality has been about 
0.6 of a foot a year. If this rate was to continue, 
the 40-foot depth would have shoaled to 20 feet 
about the year 1929. 

Originally the distance between the 30-foot curve 
inside and the same curve outside was 12,300 feet. 
In 1896, from the ends of the jetties to the outside 
of the 30-foot cun-e, ignoring the channel through 
the bar, which has failed, at times, to maintain the 
30-foot depth, the distance is only about 1,600 
feet. 

The plateau which supports the bar, which has 
less than 30 feet of water over it, is very large, 
and is approximately without limits on the eastern 
side. So long as this condition prevails the growth 
of the bar in height will be retarded, but this con- 
dition will be greatly changed when the bank on 
the Avest has extended a little farther. It is reason- 
able to expect that when the 20-foot contour shaU 
have reached the present 50-foot contour's position 
the bar will have considerably less than 30 feet of 
water over it, or through it. At the present ad- 
vance of this 20-foot contour the 50-foot contour 
will be reached, in all probability, by 1913; at the 



Past— Present— Prospective 



165 



present time the 30 and 40 foot curves approach 
each other closely on the west side. On the east 
side the approach is not so near. The 30-foot about 
coincides with the 40-foot contour of 1879, while 
on the west side the 20-foot contour coincides with 
the 40-foot of 1879 (later survey shows it has nearly 
reached the 40-foot), or the 20-foot (of 1896) con- 
tour advances much more rapidly than the 30-foot 
on the east. Unless the basin in front of the jetties 
enlarges mucli more rapidly than it does, the bar 
will be so broad that it will be impossible to main- 
tain through it with a reasonable amount of dredg- 
ing a channel of 30 feet, and it is doubtful if this 
channel could be maintained uninterruptedly at 25 
feet for any length of time. 

Under the very best of conditions, the life of the 
30-foot channel, created ahd maintained by jetties 
and dredging, will not last at South Pass beyond 
1913, or say for thirty-four vears from completion, 
although the restoration of the bar to its natural 
condition would require one hundred years or a 
greater period. 

The situation at Southwest Pass is not so favor- 
able as at South Pass,- so far as the transverse cur- 
rent is concerned, the current being comparatively 
weaker at this place, the advance of the bar appear- 
ing to be very symmetrical with the axis of the 
pass. 

The advance of the bar between the time of the 
survey of this pass by the Coast Sun'ey of 1867 and 
the present survey is shown on the accompanying 
chart. This covers a period of thirty-one years, and 
the annual advance for this whole time is at the 
rate of 251 feet a year. To maintain this advance, 
it would require, tO' fill up the areas in advance and 
on either hand, the annual deposit of about 32,- 
000,000 cubic yards of material, sufficient, if it were 
piled on the square upon which the Capitol at 
Washington stands (a square which is about 1,650 
feet by 1,400 feet), to raise the level of the ground 
several feet above the top of the statue on the top of 
the Capitol dome. 

The rate of advance of the bar has undergone 
considerable variations at different epochs, as 
shown in Mr. Ockerson's report. In the interval 
between 3 838 and 1857 the advance Avas 239 feet 
per annum. In that between 1857 and 1873 it was 
401 feet per annum, and between 1S73 and 1898 
it shows but 176 feet advance per annum. The 
interval previously alluded to covers part of the 



time when the bar had its most rapid advance and 
is, therefore, considerably greater than the present. 
There is a very material falling ofi in the advance 
of the bar since the survey of 1873. If the quantity 
of material transported is proportioned to the vol- 
ume of water, it would appear that the volume of 
discharge had materially diminished. In 1873, at 
flood tide, the discharge was stated to be 408,000 
cubic feet per second. Mr. Ockerson's observations 
give 370,000 cubic feet as the discharge, when the 
river was at something less than a high-water stage, 
probably what might be called a mean high-water 
stage, and for such a stage the discharge is stated 
to have been, in 1873, 340,000 cubic feet. 

The exact data relative to the stage of the river 
corresponding to the mean high water is not stated. 
It may be inferred that the discharge of Southwest 
Pass has not diminished materially since 1873, or 
sufficiently to account for the decrease in the rate 
of advance in the bar since then. It is possible that 
the character of the material brought to the bar 
has undergone some changes in recent years, and 
the heavier material which forms the bar proper 
may have diminished, and the lighter material held 
in suspension increased. (The rapid advance of the 
60 and 70 foot contours of depth at South Pass 
would indicate some such change.) There may 
also have been some deflection of the heavier ma- 
terial at the head, owing to the sill sunk across the 
pass by Mr. Eads. The advance of the bar into 
the Gulf, since greater depths must be filled in, will 
account for some of the loss, but there certainly 
remains a considerable loss of bar-building material 
that is unaccounted for. 

During the times the bar was advancing rapidly, 
the depth of water on the crest of the bar was 
the greatest. This would appear to indicate a loss 
of velocity which, since the discharge at the head 
of the pass seems to be unchanged, could only oc- 
cur through the increased discharge of the lateral 
openings above the mouth. 

The slope of the pass varies from 2 feet at high 
water to 0.6 foot at low water. At high water the 
slope is very steep from the head to about one- 
fourth the way down, where some irregularities oc- 
cur. From below this point to the Pilot Station 
Piavou the slope is more moderate, but is adequate 
to give sufficient velocity of flow to the water to 
enable it to maintain a very deep channel. Be- 
tween the last station inside the banks to Stake 



166 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



Island the slope is much steeper than the section 
just above. As this last section is where the ex- 
pansion of channel occurs, this sharp descent is to 
be expected. If the slope can be equalized through- 
out the entire length of the pass, from head to 
crest of bar, it seems that it would be sufifiicient to 
maintain a satisfactory current to deepen the chan- 
nel across the bar to as much as is desired. To 
accomplish this the pass will have to be leveed and 
all lateral openings closed. 

The principal object to be gained in constructing 
the levees and jetties is to secure, if possible, a 
channel from end to end of the pass, which shall 
have, as nearly as possible, an uniform capacity for 



discharge, and be as free as possible from bends 
throughout. 

As the prolongation of the jetties will in time be 
necessary, the durability of the constructions must 
be such that no reconstruction will be necessary, 
but the work must be capable of extension, with- 
out unnecessary expense for preparation. 

Although the pass is longer and the discharge of 
sediment greater than at South Pass (it is not 
deemed profitable to look further for an example), 
it is believed that the deeper channel can be main- 
tained with a reasonable amount of dredging for at 
least thirty years, and that the extension of the 
jetties will not be positively demanded until some 
time later. 




•CLEARED THE PASSES AND SOUTHWARD BOUND." 



Past— Present— Prospective 



167 




STUYVESANT FISH. 



168 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



DEEP WATER AT MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

Statement to the Committee on Rivers and Harbors of the U. S. House of Representatives 



By STUYVESANT FISH 
President of the Illinois Central Railroad Company, March 6th, 1900 



Ml'. Chairman and Gentlemen of the Committee: 

May I be permitted to invite your attention to 
tlie cliannels tlirough which the foreign commerce 
of the United States flowed in the period immedi- 
ately preceding the Civil War, before natural con- 
ditions had been disturbed by civil strife, by subse- 
quent misgovernment in the Southern States, and 
by the welding together of what are now known as 
the great East and West Trunk Line Railways? 
With these facts before us, we will then contrast 
present conditions, and leave to you and to Con- 
gress the task of so legislating as to restore the 
natural conditions of fair and free competition be- 
tween the several ports of our common and united 
country. 

Without claiming that the specific provision of 
the Constitution (Art. I, Sec. 9), forbidding the 
giving of preferences to the ports of one State 
over those of another, requires this tO' be done, I 
do claim that the spirit of that instrument, and 
common sense and common justice alike, demand 
that the mouth of the Mississippi river be now 
made and kept navigable by any ships which do, or 
may, enter any of the ports of the United States. 

EXPORTS UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS. 

In two of the three years immediately preceding 
the Civil War the domestic exports through New 
Orleans exceeded those through New York in 
value. 

In the five years ended June 30, 1860, the do- 
mestic exports through New Orleans increased not 
only in a greater ratio, but to a greater extent than 
did those through New York. 

In those five years 'New Orleans had 28.38 per 
cent of the export trade of the United States ; New 
York, 30.95 per cent; Boston, 5.60; Philadelphia, 
1.83; Baltimore, 3.15; San Francisco, 3.27. All 
other ports, 26.82 per cent. 

The value of the exports through New Orleans 
was not swelled by abnormal prices of cotton. 



which ranged, in 1858, from 8^- to 12f cents, in 
1859 from lOf to 12f, in 1860 from 9^ to 12. The 
present price of the same article, middling cotton, 
at the same place. New Orleans, is 9-]- cents per 
pound. 

IMPORTS UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS. 

In each of the five years, 1856 to 1860, inclusive. 
New Orleans imported a greater value of foreign 
merchandise than either Philadelphia, Baltimore or 
San Francisco. 

Throughout those five years New Orleans im- 
ported 6.17 per cent in value of the foreign goods 
brought into the United States, against 5.69 im- 
ported through Baltimore and San Francisco taken 
together, and 4.61 per cent through Philadelphia, 
while New York then had 62.71 per cent, and all 
the other ports 20.82 per cent thereof. 

CONTRAST. 

Let us now look into the flow of our national 
commerce under the artificial conditions since 
created, and particularly into the figures for the 
past five years. 

The reports of the United States Bureau of Com- 
merce and Navigation show that, during the year 
ended June 30, 1862, there were neither exports 
nor imports through New Orleans, and that, in 
the four years from July 1, 1861, to June 30, 1865, 
her total foreign commerce, including both exports 
and imports, amounted to only $17,831,005. This 
as against a like commerce in the single year 1860 
of $130,735,353. The ravages of the Civil War 
so effectually crippled the trade of New Orleans 
that, in the succeeding years of internal peace and 
prosperity, those figures of 1860 were never ex- 
ceeded until 1892, and have not since been equaled. 

I have in vain tried to get figures for the year 
ended June 30, 1899, and must be content with 
those for 1898. 

The following table contrasts the conditions pre- 
vailing for five years before the Civil War with 



Past— Present— Prospective 



169 



those of the past five years. It shows that, not- 
withstanding the enormous growth of the Middle 
West in the intervening thirty-eight years, New 
Orleans alone, of all the ports in the United States, 
has lost in the value of her exports, and that her 
share of the foreign imports has dwindled down 
to less than one-fiftieth (1.85 per cent) of the value 
of those of the United States. 

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF FOREIGN 
COMMERCE 

For the five years 1856 to 1860, inclusive, under 

natural conditions, and for the four years 1894 to 

1898, inclusive, under changed conditions. 

DOMESTIC EXPORTS. 





5 Years ended 
June 30, i860 


5 Years ended 
June 30, 1898 


Changes in 
Per Cent 
OF Total 


PORTS. 


Average 
yearly 
value 


Per 
cent of 
Total 


Average 
yearly 
value 


Per 

cent of 

total 


5.5 £. 


£ 1 

"^ rt <D 
Q.S Q. 


New York 


Sl02.257,675 
18,613.657 
6,059,011 
10,403,907 
93,817.338 
10,808,085 
88,622.993 


30.95 
5.60 
1.83 

28:38 

3.27 

26.82 


S459.811.S92 
96,051,735 
43,581,218 
82,223,787 
88,432,371 
39,051,660 
247.270.731 


43.52 
9.09 
4-13 

8.37 

3-70 

23 -il 


12.5; 

3-49 
2.30 
4.63 

• 43 








Philadelphia 




New Orleans 

San Francisco 

All other ports 


20.01 

3-41 


Total, U. S 


3330.482,666 


100. 


St. 056, 423,394 


100. 









FOREIGN IMPORTS. 










$208,080,149 
41.395,022 
15,294,205 

9.625.993 
20.486,416 

9.227,692 
27.606,116 


62.71 
12.50 
4.6t 
2.00 
6.17 
2.79 
8.32 


8516,265,696 
68,594.782 
■45,324.561 
11,607,868 
14.832,375 
49.329.545 
97,839.303 


64.21 

8.54 
5.64 
1.46 
1.85 
6.14 
12.17 


1.50 
1.03 

'li 




Boston 

Philadelphia 

Balfimore 

New Orleans 

San Francisco 

All other ports 


3.96 

1-45 
4.32 


Total, U. S 


$331,815,533 


100. 


$803,794,130 


100. 







The figures as to exports and imports, referred 
to above, are more fully set forth in the tables ''A" 
and "B," submitted herewith in manuscript, but 
not printed. 

The population of the United States was : 

In 1860 31,443,321 

In 1890 62,622,250 



Increase 31,178,929 or 99.16 per cent 

The population of the States bordering immedi- 
ately on the east bank of the Mississippi river 
(Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, .Tennessee, Mis- 
sissippi and Louisiana), and the States and Terri- 
tories west thereof, was : 

In 1860 10,081,097 

In 1890 26,891,249 



Increase 16,810,152 or 166.75 per cent 

The population of the States east of those bor- 
dering immediately on the east bank of the Mis- 
sissippi river (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 



Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Dis- 
trict of Columbia, Delaware, Virginia, including 
West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Ohio, Indiana and Mich- 
igan) was : 

In 1860 21,362,224 

In 1890 35,731,001 



Increase 14,368,777 or 67.26 per cent 

Or, to put it in another way, of the 31,178,929 
increase in the United States, 16,810,152, more 
than one-half (53.92 per cent) has taken place on, 
and west of, the Mississippi, and 14,368,777, or 
46.08 per cent thereof, has taken place east of the 
States bordering on that river. 

The wealth of the United States was : 

In 1860 $16,159,616,068 

In 1890 65,037,091,197 



Increase $48,877,475,129 or 302.47 per cent 

That in the States on, and west of, the Mississippi 

river, was : 

In 1860 $ 5,209,502,149 

In 1890 29,704,269,881 



Increase $24,494,767,732 or 470.19 per cent 

That in the States east of those bordering on the 

east bank of the river, was : 

In 1860 $10,950,113,919 

In 1890 35,332,821,316 



Increase $24,382,707,397 or 222.67 per cent 

The Census of 1900 will doubtless show still 
greater gains in the West. 

Obviously, the loss to the Nation of foreign com- 
merce through New Orleans was not due to a 
diminution in the population or in the wealth of 
the territory natui-ally tributary to that port. 

That the domestic exports through New Orleans 
in recent years have been large, and are rapidly 
growing, is due to three causes : 

I. — The geographical position of New Or- 
leans. 
II. — The exceptional facilities afforded by the 
railroads radiating thence in various di- 
rections for reaching all parts of the 
interior. 
III. — The relative cheapness of real estate in 
New Orleans as compared with the 
cities on the Atlantic Seaboard. 



170 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



The short rail distances from some of the in- 
terior grain markets and packing house centres to 
New York and to New Orleans, are : 





To 
New York. 


To 
New Oreeans 


Saving to 
New Orleans. 




Miles. 


Miles. 


Miles. 


Chicago, III 


912 

1,390 

1.332 

1,321 

1,422 

1,402 

1.079 

1,058 

1,006 

1,089 

989 

867 

939 

1,932 

1.335 


912 
1,337 
1.279 

1.070 
988 
695 
860 
554 
708 
746 
557 

1.356 
878 




Duluth, Minn .... 


53 
53 

.11 
332 
91 
353 
146 
535 
281 




St. Paul Minn 






Dubuque, ]a 




Peoria, 111 

Cairo, 111 




Louisville, Ky 






382 
576 

457 


Denver, Col . 


Kansas City, Mo .... 





From data compiled in connection with the Cen- 
sus of 1890 we can determine where the following 
important centres in the United States, exclusive 
of Alaska, then were : 

The centre of area is in Smith county, in north- 
ern Kansas, some 200 miles west of the Missouri 
river, in west longitude 98° 50'. 

The centre of wheat production then was in 
the western part of Hancock county, Illinois, in 
longitude 91° 29', and not far from Keokuk, in 
Iowa. 

The centre of corn production then was in Lewis 
county, Missouri, in longitude 91° 37'. 

The centre of population then was in the south- 
ern part of Decatur county, Indiana, in longitude 
85° 33'. 

The centre of manufactures then was some miles 
south of President McKinley's home. Canton, 
Ohio, in longitude 81° 34'. 

. Except the centre of area, on which our recent 
acquisitions may or may not be considered as hav- 
ing any effect, each of the other centres may be 
broadly said to be moving westward at the rate of 
about 50 miles in ten years. 

A glance at the map will show that every one of 
these centres is within the area drained by the Mis- 
sissippi river, excepting possibly the centre of 
manufactures. But this point, although very close 
to the northern rim of the watershed, lies 150 miles 
west of the main ridge of the Alleghany Mountains. 

Each of these centres lies close to the 40th degree 
of north latitude. 

New Orleans is in longitude 89° 58' and in 
latitude 30° 1'. 



Is it not natural that the products of the valley 
should go 10 degrees down hill to the gulf, instead 
of going 15 degrees over the mountains to the 
Atlantic? 

You, gentlemen in Congress, are legislating for 
the whole country and for the future, and must not 
neglect the constant movement westward. 

The figures given above are those taken for the 
Census of 1890, touching the crops raised eleven 
years ago in 1889, and relate to wheat and corn 
alone. A valued friend of mine in one of the de- 
partments here in Washington, to whom I am 
indebted for much of the foregoing, writes me: 

"I have also had a rough calculation made con- 
cerning the entire cereal production. Assuming 
the equality of a bushel of each cereal, and consid- 
ering Louisiana and Minnesota. as located entirely 
west of the Mississippi river, I find that the pro- 
duction of cereals west of the Mississippi in 1889 
was 1,815,635,871 bushels, and that east of the 
Mississippi was 1,703,181,033 bushels. In other 
words, the production west of the Mississippi ex- 
ceeded half -of the total product of the United States 
by about fifty-six and one-half million bushels. 
This does not prove that the centre of cereal pro- 
duction lies west of the Mississippi river, though 
it seems to raise a presumption on that side." 

II- 

As to the exceptional facilities afforded to New 
Orleans by her railroads, permit me to quote from 
what I said last October to the Industrial Com- 
mission : 

"Terminating in New Orleans and radiating 
therefrom into the interior in all directions are six 
great railroads : 

1. The Southern Pacific, operating. 7,614 miles 

and extending through Louis- 
iana, Texas, New Mexico, 
Arizona and California to 
Portland, Oregon, as well as 
through Nevada and Utah to 
Ogden, with branches reach- 
ing into the Indian Territory 
and the Republic of Mexico. 

2. The so-called Queen & Crescent 

Route, operating 1,155 miles 

in Louisiana, Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky, and reaching Cincin- 
nati, O. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



171 



3. 



The Louisville & Nashville R. R., 
operating, in its 

own name 2,988 miles, 

and controlling, 
through an own- 
ership of stock, 
the Nashville, 
Chattanooga & 
St. Louis R. R., 
which operates.. 1,189 miles. 



Making together 4,177 miles 

The lines of these two com- 
panies lie in Louisiana, Missis- 
sippi, Alabama, Florida, Ten- 
nessee, Georgia, Kentucky, Il- 
linois, and reach St. Louis on 
the West, Cincinnati on the 
Northwest, as well as all the 
lower crossings of the Ohio 
River, except Cairo. 

4. The Texas & Pacific Railway, 

operating in Louisiana and 

Texas 1,492 miles 

While this railway is affili- 
ated with the so-called Gould 
System of Railroads which 
comprise in all 9,000 miles, 
reaching through Arkansas, 
Indian Territory, Missouri, 
Kansas, Colorado, and Ne- 
braska to Denver, Omaha, 
Kansas City and St. Louis, 
only the mileage actualh^ con- 
trolled by the corporation ope- 
rating in New Orleans, the 
Texas & Pacific Railway Com- 
pany, is considered in this con- 
nection. 

5. The Yazoo & Mississippi Valley 

R. R., operating in Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Arkansas and Ten- 
nessee 1,001 miles 

6. The Illinois Central R. R., oper- 

ating in Louisiana, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Tennessee, Ken- 
tucky, Illinois, Indiana, Wis- 
consin, Iowa, Minnesota and 
South Dakota 3,995 miles 



Railroad mileage tributary 

to New Orleans 19,434 miles 



No other port in the United States is served by 
railroads reaching, under single managements, so 
far and in such varied directions into the interior 
of the continent." 

The mileage here given has been brought down 
to date, and exceeds that stated in October by 
348 miles. 

III. 

It is universally admitted that, in these days of 
low freights by rail, the terminal expenses are an 
important, if not a controlling, factor in the com- 
petition of rival ports. The assessed value of all 
the real estate in New York (Greater New York) 
is $2,932,445,464, the area of the city is 307.34 
square miles, the assessment per acre $14,908. 

The assessed value of all the real estate in New 
Orleans is $103,000,000, the area of the city is 228 
square miles, the assessment per acre $706. 

That is to say, the average of the assessed value 
per acre of all the land in New York is more than 
twenty-one times as great as in New Orleans. 

It is within my knowledge that assessments in 
New Orleans generally approach to, and often 
exceed, the actual selling value, and that, in New 
York, they are generally about 60 per cent thereof, 
and often less. 

The transfer to ships of freights, especially the 
bulkier articles of export, grain, cotton, lumber 
and the like, require the use of large and ever-in- 
creasing areas of land in close proximity to navi- 
gable water. Where land is cheapest there will 
freight be most cheaply transferred to ships. 

The assessed value of all the real estate per acre 
in San Francisco and in Philadelphia is fifteen times 
greater than in New Orleans, in Baltimore it is 
eighteen times and in Boston more than forty-four 
times. In this cheapness of land hes one of the ad- 
vantages of the Southern ports which merits more 
attention than it has received. 

That the partial restoration of natural conditions 
which has been brought about, in a lai-ge measure 
at least, by the railroads, has attracted the atten- 
tion of Congress, and of the other ports, is shown 
by your action in appropriating, last year, $6,500,- 
000 to provide a direct channel to the sea from 
New York. 

The New York Commerce Commission, ap- 
pointed in pursuance of a law passed by the State 
of New York in 1898, and subsequently amended 
in 1899, and the urgest and persistent efforts of 



172 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 

the New York Chamber of Commerce, had much 1870, 1880, 1885, 1890, and 1895. These rates 

to do with your making that wise and timely ap- are subject to fluctuations, but in the main repre- 

propriation for our chief national port. sent the course of the freight market : 

The report of the New York Commerce Com- ^^^^^ ^p freight. 

mission quotes as fohows from a statement read to dur.hg years 1870. isso. 1885. isoo. 1895. 

the commission by Mr. Gustav H. Schwab, of the PrOTrsions.'per'iM'ibs;:;;.';;:;:' |o fe 22 zi'^ w 

XT .1 /-^ T 1 1 (^ , 1 • /-^ Cotton, per 100 lbs 80 50 -ly 7'; 2^ 

North Cerman-Lloyd Steamship Co. : Tobacco, per hosshead lo oo 780 e 60 600 600 

Tobacco, per case 3 oo 2 85 i 68 I 35 i 20 

"As has been the case in railroad transportation p„„ ,„ ^J^J^k""?,"""*'"" 

I Goods, per cubic ft 24 20 15 12 to 15 10 to i 

on land, the great factor in cheapening ocean trans- t-i i- i -i ■ • i 

, . 1 » these ngures, while varying in some years, show- 

portation has been the increase m the carrvmo- . . , , . 

. . , .... ' ing a temporary increase now and later again a 

capacity of vessels, accompanied with constant , ^. ai ■ ^, ■ ■,■ , ,, , , 

. . reduction, surhcientlv indicate the general trend 

improvements m motive power, that matenallv r ^ i i ' • rr ■, 

, , . . -^01 rates downward as improvements are effected 

reduce the cost of transportation per ton of cargio . ,, , . , .,, . , 

'^ m the vehicles, with free ingress and egress into 
moved. Where thirty vears ago vessels of 2,t)00 , , 11 

■^ ■ . , , , and from our harbor, 

tons gross register were considered the larjest that t,, , . , . , 

, , , . ,, , r , "" , J^hs present size and capacity of ocean steam- 
could be economically and safely operated, now , . , , ^ 1 • , • 
... ^ ^^^^ , , ships now demand a further material increase in 
freight steamers of 12,000 tons are regularly em- ^, , ., r ' . •, 1 • , 

, , . , . . a J ^j-jg depth of water provided m our channels, 

ployed m the transportation of enormous cargoes. t- • 1 . • , ■ 1 • . r r 

i,, . , , . . , . r , , rreight carriers drawing thirtv-one feet of water 

Ihis gradual increase m the size of the vessels , . , 1 ' • 1 , , 

. , , , , , , , are now not infrequent, and with the advent in 

necessitated by the demand of commerce for ,, , , , , , 

, . , ,, , , the near future of greater vessels, and the iieces- 

cheaper transportation, has called for a greater . , , . , , • , -.^r , 

, , , . , , , , ,. . , sitv tor protecting the producer m the West by 

depth of water m the channels leading into and ", ,. , . ,, , , ,. , , 

, , , , . ^^ ^r , , , , enabling him, through the medium of cheap trans- 

out of the harbor of New York; and, on the other , ■ , , , r t- 

,,,,,. . , portation to the markets of h-urope, to compete 

hand, as the demands of commerce were recosfnized ■,, o 1 » • i ,■ , t ,• , • 

,,,,.,„ , , , , with South America, Australia, and India, the im- 

by the N ational Covernment, and as the channels , . , . , , , , , 

. , . , , , , , , , . , perative urgency of an improved channel capable 

were increased m depth, the number of large freight . , . , , , . ^ ^ , ^ 

, : X , T. 01 accommodating vessels of thirty-nve feet draft 

and passenger carriers grew. In the year 1870, . ^, , ^ 1 , , 1 ^ ^ „ , 

,.,.,, , , in the near future should be apparent to all who 

the maximum draft of vessels can be quoted at 22 , , , ... , ^ 

. . , , . . r , • 1 have at heart the best interests not only of our city 

feet, at a time when the minimum depth in the , o, . 1 r 1 , , ,, 

, , , ,^ ^- , 1 , , . , and State but of the whole country, 

channels of New York harbor at mean low tide t>toi i- j- .ir 

^„ , , ^„„„ , , , , , , Mr. Schwab, m reading the foregoing statement, 

was 23 feet. In 1880, the draft of steamers had , , , ^ s & 

added: 
increased to more than 23 feet, the depth of water ut^ • w 1 r t_ • ^ 1 • 

, , , , . , . , It might be proper for me, being a steamship 

in the channel showing 24 feet m that vear. In , .... , . . ^ 

, , -. , ■ man, to explain that, m my personal opinion, 1 

the year 1890 the efforts of the government had , , , ,, ^ 1 ., r r r ^ -n 1 • 1 ■ 

, , . , , ^ hold that a depth of forty feet will be required in 

resulted m a depth at mean low water of 30 feet, ,, r , -r. 1 1 1 r 

. , . , . , . , , the ver}- near future, rrobabh' vou are aware of 

both m the mam ship channel and in the Gedney ,^ r ^ ^, ^ ^ a ^ ^ ' r n .1 

. . ■' the tact that to noat a steamer successfullv over the 

channel, permitting the construction of the , -^ • ^1 ^, r ^ r ^ , 

■T . ^ . bar it is necessary to have three feet of water under 

enormous freight carriers of the present dav, whose 1 1 1 -n i. • 1 r ^1 1 1 r ..1 

, . r r , ner keel. 1 he west winds of the harbor frequently 

draft frequently reaches 30 feet, and m some cases 1-4.1 ^ ^ ^1 ^ ^t ■ ^- r 

, , drive the water out so. that there is sometimes four 

exceeds that measurement. r ,, -,-,7, 1 r .1 • . c r ^ r ^ 

feet less. vV hen we speak of thirtv-hve feet or torty 

A comparison of the range of freight rates dur- fggt, that is mean low water." 
ing these years illustrates the advantages gained xhe New York Commerce Commission then go 

by the improvements made in ocean transporta- q^-^ ^q g^y • 

tion during the last thirty years, improvements "As a result of earnest and united endeavors to 

which have been rendered possible by the action ggcure the much-needed improvements in the har- 

of the national authorities in deepening the ap- bor approaches, the National Congress has made 

proaches to the harbor. ample provision for the direct channel to the sea, 

In the following table the average rates of freight forty feet in depth and two thousand feet wide, and 

from New York to one of the continental ports of on May 12th, 1899, a contract was entered into for 

Europe are quoted as they prevailed in the years the active prosecution of the work." 



Past— Present— Prospective 



173 



New York having thus, and very properly, been 
provided with enough for aU her needs in the pres- 
ent and in the immediate future, we come before 
you pleading the cause of the Great Central Basin 
of the United States, which is drained by the Mis- 
issippi river, rather than as saying anything for its 
seaport, New Orleans. 

The Mississippi river drains the whole of nine 
States and Territories, and parts of twenty-three 
other States, not to speak of a considerable slice of 
the Dominion of Canada. Rejecting eight States, 
of which but a small portion lies within the valley, 
twenty-four States and Territories may be fairly 
considered as tributary to that river. The valley 
contains 1,240,039 scjuare miles, or 41 per cent 
of the area of the United States, exclusive of 
Alaska and other outlying possessions. There 
dwell nearly one-half of our citizenship. 

Its soil, beside feeding our own people, except 
those on the Pacific coast, yields the whole of our 
exportable surplus of live stock of every kmd, and 



most of the breadstuff's. Its mines yield our petro- 
leum oil and most of our coal, its forests supply 
our lumber, and its workshops turn out, annually, 
an increasing share of our manufactures. 

Omitting the two Territories, which are, of 
course, represented by their delegates, those twen- 
ty-two States send 44 Senators and 200 Represen- 
tatives to Congress. In 1896 they cast more than 
half of the total vote in the Electoral College, 247 
out of 447. The 149 votes of ten States went to 
Mr. McKinley, and the 98 votes of the other twelve 
to Mr. Bryan. As between the two great political 
parties, the basin drained by the Mississippi is fairly 
debatable ground. 

The cjuestion which we present to you to-day is 
whether the citizens of the great central basin of 
these United States are, or are not, to be now 
given the means of getting their products carried 
to sea, at the least possible cost to them, in ships 
which can compete with those sailing from other 
ports? 




THE PORT OF NEW ORLEANS 



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Showing Northern and Western Connections with the 
Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi River. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



185 




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Past— Present— Prospective 



187 




188 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



DEEP WATER 



By M. J. SANDERS, President N. O. Maritime Association 



The great and glorious River Mississippi, the 
Father of Waters, has ever exerted a paramount 
influence upon the development and welfare of our 
great country, and though our land is fast being 
covered with a closely woven network of railroads, 
the importance of the great river has never, and 
will never cease to be felt by our Nation. Even 
whilst neglected, its channels allowed to fill up, and 
its navigation of a precarious and unsatisfactory 
nature, little used and carrying upon its bosom but 
a small fraction of the country's trade, its direct, 
positive influence upon the economy of transporta- 
tion, saved the farmers and manufacturers of the 
great valley millions of dollars annually. Congress 
has in recent years liberally appropriated money 
for the betterment of its navigation and in the 
near future we shall doubtless see the great stream 
working out its beneficent destiny as the great eco- 
nomical highway from the farms and factories of 
the great West to the shore of the distant Gulf. 

Satisfactory water transportation always has 
proved and always will prove more economical than 
any other form yet known, and for such purpose 
there is no river in the world so important and 
capable of such great and beneficent influence as 
the great natural highway of the United States. 

The commercial utility as a means of transpor- 
tation of the River Mississippi and its tributaries 
is, however, still in its infancy. The money ex- 
pended by Congress to improve the navigation of 
this great system of waterways has scarcely yet 
borne any extraordinary results, but that it will 
soon dO' so and that still greater sums of money 
will be spent to advantage on these streams is a 
certainty. The thousands of miles of waterways 
of the river and its tributaries, which, in like man- 
ner to the great arterial system in the human body, 
ramify throughout more than one-half of the states 
of the Union, furnish God-given possibilities, al- 
most beyond the conception of man, and the wild- 
est imagination of great engineers has never yet 
been able to more than outline the future possi- 



bilities of this great waterway system, which is 
destined to prove the great safeguard and econom- 
ical transportation factor in the welfare of the teem- 
ing, toiling millions, who shall cultivate the soil of 
the fertile valleys, build great cities upon its banks, 
and manufacture there the necessaries of Hfe for a 
very large portion of the whole world. The money 
the country has as yet expended, and the results 
that have thereby been gained, are but as a drop 
in the bucket, compared with that which lies before 
us in the future. That the mouth of this great river 
should be properly cared for and that its channels 
should ever afiford safe navigation for the fleets of 
the world engaged in the peaceful beneficence of 
commerce requires no argument. 

There is no apparent finality in human aftairs. 
What our ancestors of old considered satisfactory 
and thoroughly modern, our fathers scouted as 
ridiculous and insufficient, and we in turn consider 
the requirements, knowledge and customs of our 
fathers as belonging to an unsatisfactory past; so 
doubtless our sons will marvel how we were con- 
tented in our narrow and undeveloped surround- 
ings and lack of, what will be to them, the com- 
mon necessities of life. 

We realize very clearly this thought in contem- 
plating the evolution of the ocean freight carrier 
with its economic results, the consideration ot 
which is largely the purpose of this article and 
which is the essential factor in the intercourse be- 
tween our own and other nations, and is a most 
practical and forcible illustration of the absence of 
finality. 

I shall endeavor briefly as possible to show the 
development of the modern ocean carrier and its 
close relation to the improvement and development 
of rivers and harbors with the economic and bene- 
ficial effects upon the welfare of our people result- 
ing therefrom. 

Twenty years ago the only channel of value to 
commerce from the main stream of the Mississippi 
River to the ocean was through the Southwest 




THOS. J. WOODWARD 




W. P. ROSS 




A. K. MILLER 





J. A. JONES 







M. WARRINER 



GEO. R. BAGLEY 
Resident City Engineer. 



190 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. 



Pass, having then over the bar at its mouth to 
the Gulf of Mexico a depth of water of some seven- 
teen to eighteen feet. Necessarily the ocean ves- 
sels trading to the port of New Orleans at that 
time, and using this channel, were of a very limited 
size and capacity, owing to this limited depth of 
water in the channel. 

The largest sized vessel at that time had a capac- 
ity of some 2,000 tons dead weight, or carried about 
0,000 bales of compressed cotton. It was Cjuite a 
common occurrence for these vessels, small as they 
were, to get aground on the bar at the mouth of the 
Pass when proceeding to sea, and many have lain 
three or four weeks until they were assisted over 
the bar to the deep water beyond, either by means 
of dredges or the natural effect of the current of 
the river. 

All this was the cause of heavy expense to those 
vessels trading to the port, while the hmited size of 
the vessels, which under the most favorable cir- 
cumstances could safely navigate this channel, seri- 
ously affected the volume of imports and exports, 
through the port of New Orleans, and maintained 
ocean transportation rates on a high basis, so that 
ports more favored in the matter of navigable chan- 
nels, and thereby admitting large vessels, were 
rapidly diverting the trade naturally belonging to 
the port at the mouth of the great river. 

Much money was spent by the Go\'ernment in 
the effort to deepen and improve the channel at 
the Southwest Pass by means of dredges and screv,^ 
propellers but without any permanent success, as 
a channel made to-day would inevitably be filled, 
and by to-morrow, all trace of yesterday's work 
completely lost through the immense amount of 
sediment which the river carries in its waters, which 
is precipitated with great rapidity when anything 
interposes to check the onward rush of the current. 
Able engineers gave the matter their attention and 
numerous theories for overcoming the difficulty 
were propounded, but finally the first definite step 
toward the much-needed improved channel was 
attained by James B. Eads, who, in March, 18T5, 
obtained from Congress a contract, whereby he 
agreed to provide a channel having a central depth 
of 30 feet through the South Pass from deep water 
in the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. At 
that time the South Pa.ss was unused, being scarcely 
more than a good sized ditch and, it was felt by 
those who opposed Mr. Eads, that if he did no 



good, he could certainly do no harm, as the pass 
given him was useless anyway. Mr. Eads's contract 
was on the "no cure, no pay" sj^stem, and it was 
understood that he proposed to make his channel 
by the use of mattresses and bulkheads in the pass 
itself, thereby contracting the width of the pass 
and at the sea end, by the use of jetty walls, extend- 
ing the banks of the pass into deep water, thus 
confining the current and forcing it by its own 
velocity not only to cari-j^ out its sediment into 
deep water in the Gulf, but also to clean out and 
maintain the channel through the whole length of 
the pass. iWhether Mr. Eads's original plans were 
or were not carried out; whether he ever originally 
intended to use dredges at all; or whether the sys- 
tem of jetties alone or jetties and dredges com- 
bined, has been proved the correct solution of this 
great engineering problem, it does not befit me 
to comment upon. That question is one for en- 
gineers alone, and of them, only such as have for 
years studied such problems are entitled to author- 
itatively speak. 

That Mr. Eads had to modify his original plans 
somewhat is very probable, and that he obtained 
from Congress a concession as regards the dimen- 
sions of the channel originally agreed upon through 
the South Pass, is on record. However, Mr. Eads 
certainly was eminently successful in obtaining a 
good navigable channel of 26 feet through the en- 
tire length of the pass, and an even greater depth be- 
tween the jetties and out to deep water in the Gulf. 
Thus, by his work, a useless pass of irregular width 
and having in places as little as 9 feet of water was 
made for 12 miles long of a depth of 26 feet, which 
depth has usually been maintained, with the excep- 
tion of periods during high water, when sand waves 
enter the pass and seriously shoal the channel. This 
makes its navigation at times dangerous and dis- 
astrous to vessels drawing as little as even 23 feet 
of water. 

No sooner was the South Pass opened with a 
channel of 26 feet depth than the average size of 
the vessels trading to the port at once showed a 
marked increase and by reason of the increased 
economy of this larger tonnage, the cost of ocean 
transportation rapidly decreased. Thus, while the 
largest vessel using the old Southwest Pass had a 
capacity of only about 6,000 bales of cotton, within 
a few years of the opening of the South Pass, ves- 
sels having a capacity of 4,000 tons dead weight 




LOADING COTTON AND OIL 




NEW ORLEANS [IN 1850-FROM AN OLD GERMAN PRINT 




UNLOADING A BANANA SHIP 



192 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




SHIPPING SCENES — PORT OF NEW ORLEANS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



193 



and able to carry 12,000 bales of cotton were regu- 
larly engaged in the trade to New Orleans. 

Previous to the opening of the South Pass the 
rate of freight on cotton from New Orleans to 
Liverpool was about l^c. per pound, or $7.90 per 
bale. Shortly after the opening of the South Pass, 
in 1880, the average rate decreased to ^ of one cent 
per pound, or $3.90 per bale. 

During the ten years following the opening of 
the new channel through the South Pass about one 
and one-half million bales of cotton per annum 
passed through this channel, making evident an an- 
nual saving in ocean transportation on this cotton 
alone of about six million dollars. The saving of 
ocean freight paid on other commodities which 
went through the new channel fully equaled this, 
so that it requires no mathematician nor even a 
shrewd business man to at once realize that, though 
it has cost the counti^y about ten million dollars to 
open and maintain for the past twenty years the 
channel through the South Pass, the annual sav- 
ing to the producer in the cost of trans- 
porting his goods to the markets across the 
ocean has equaled the total cost of the im- 
provements and maintenance. These figures 
sound fabulous and, except to the initiated, 
grossly exaggerated, but it must be remembered 
that the channel through the mouth of the great 
River Mississippi is of such enormous commercial 
value that, however great the sum properly spent 
upon its improvement and maintenance, the return 
is bound to far exceed the cost. 

Since Congress sO' wisely decided upon the open- 
ing of a new channel at the mouth of the river, 
other important factors have come into play, still 
further affecting the economy of ocean transpor- 
tation. Principal amongst these is the evolution 
(amounting almost to a revolution) of the modern 
ocean Leviathan. 

Previous to 1890 the growth in size of ocean 
steamers had been quite gradual, in fact for several 
years previous the size of ocean vessels had (outside 
of a few passenger steamers) increased only slightly, 
but about that year one or two steamers made their 
appearance, destined for trade between the United 
States and Great Britain, distinctly of much greater 
cargo capacity than anything then afloat. It was 
soon seen that the economy and commercial suc- 
cess of the new large freighters over their com- 
petitors was enormous, and at once began in ship- 



ping the remarkable era of the past ten years, 
during which more advance in the size of ocean 
freighters has been made than in fifty years pre- 
vious. Vessel after vessel was built, each having 
an enormously increased capacity over its prede- 
cessor, until even the wide awake shipowner held 
his breath and enquired, "When is it going to 
stop?" Whereas a steamer of 4,000 tons capacity 
was ten years ago quite large, to-day one hears 
vi'ithout wonder of vessels building whose capacity 
is 10,000 tons, and still there is no evidence of 
finality. At first it was supposed that the devel- 
opment would end when the vessels had reached 
the maximum size which the principal ports in 
the world could accommodate, as of course the 
larger vessels are not only longer and broader, but 
much deeper than the vessels of ten years ago, and 
the depth of channels, width of dock gates, and 
length of quays and wharves all had to be taken 
into account. 

It was known that the expense of enlarging chan- 
nels and altering massive masonry, such as the dock 
gates and docks necessary in tidal harbors are built 
of, would be enormous, and- few realized that even 
this difficulty would not seriously retard the in- 
creasing size of the ocean carrier. It required but 
a few years" experience, however, to convince busi- 
ness men the world over that the big carrier was 
not only an assured success, but practically irre- 
sistible as an economizer, and the ports both in this 
and other countries began at once to arrange for 
such improvements as would enable them to ac- 
commodate the "Ocean Monsters," so that their 
more favored rivals might not outstrip them in the 
ceaseless competition of commerce. 

The United States has ever been to the forefront 
in the matter of harbors and up-to-date port facil- 
ities, and as a consequence this country has un- 
doubtedly the lion's share of the most economical 
form of ocean transportation. But the finest of 
our ports required improvement in order to accom- 
modate these enormous vessels and New York, 
Boston, New Oideans, Philadelphia, Baltimore and 
all the large ports on the Atlantic and Gulf sea- 
board have been and are still seeking that assist- 
ance from the Federal Government, to which they 
are entitled, and which is usually so wisely granted 
by Congress. The port of Liverpool, England, 
having for years past by far the largest and finest 
docks system in the world, and upon which some 



194 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. 



$100,000,000 have been spent, was not far behind 
other ports in appreciating the necessity for im- 
provements to even its magnificent docks, and is 
now working hard to complete a scheme involving 
the expenditure of some $20,000,000, while other 
ports in Great Britain, and on the continent of 
Europe, such ports as Hamburg, Bremen, Antwerp 
and many others, are spending millions of dollars 
in harbor, channel and dock improvements. 

All this proves most decisively the power of the 
modern ocean carrier as an economical commercial 
factor. 

The port of New Orleans has for some years past 
been favored with the- most modern of ocean freight 
carriers and vmtil recently its enormous exports of 
cotton, grain, lumber, cotton-seed products, etc., 
have obtained the full benefit of economical ocean 
transportation. 

The past three or four years have, however, 
served to manifest in a verj' marked manner the 
fact that the Eads channel of 20 years ago had 
become entirelj' insui^cient and very dangerous to 
modern vessels. Shipowners built vessels for the 
trade and sent to the. port of New Orleans the 
latest additions to their fleets, knowing the limited 
depth of water in the channel through the South 
Pass, but relying upon the volume of cotton, which 
is a bulky and light freight, to so load their vessels 
that their draft of water would not be beyond the 
capacity of the pass. It required but a brief period, 
however, to demonstrate that not only was the 
depth of water a factor, but the narrow channel 
and strong current frequently experienced, made 
its navigation hazardous in the extreme to the large 
carriers. Not only were these vessels unable to 
load in heavy freight above some three-fourths of 
their capacity, thereby seriously reducing their eco- 
nomical value, but their greater length and breadth 
caused an immediate increase in the number of ves- 
sels grounding in the pass. These occurrences have 
assumed the most alarming aspect and more than 
once in the past two years the grounding of these 
large vessels has seriously threatened the entire 
destruction of the only navigable channel from the 
river to the Gulf. 

For over three years past a committee appointed 
by the exchanges and important business interests 
of New Orleans has been urging upon Congress, 
through its committees, this danger which threat- 
ens South Pass, and the necessity of opening up 
the Southwest Pass with a wider and deeper chan- 



nel from the river to the sea. Two years ago Con- 
gress, in response to the representations of this 
committee, appointed a special Board of Engineers 
with instructions to survey the Southwest Pass and 
report upon the practicability of opening up that 
Pass and estimate of the cost thereof. This report 
was placed before the Rivers and Harbors Commit- 
tee of Congress in January, 1899, but was not con- 
sidered by it sufficiently explicit and satisfactory 
to justify favorable action, and, therefore, another 
special Board of Engineers was appointed to esti- 
mate the cost and prepare a plan for opening up a 
channel with a depth of 35 feet through the South- 
west Pass. 

The report of this Board was completed and laid 
before Congress in January last and states that the 
pass can be opened and channel of 35 feet in depth 
by some 1,000 feet width can be made at estimated 
cost of not over six million dollars. This report 
will, it is hoped, be received by Congress as satis- 
factory and sufficient justification for the immediate 
appropriation of the funds necessary to carry out 
the report of the Board of Engineers and thereby 
provide an outlet from the great river to the ocean 
more suitable to the requirements of commerce and 
more in keeping with the majesty and importance 
of the great highway. 

At the mouth of the ri^'er, the main stream, which 
is nearly a mile wide, divides into three channels 
or passes and thus continues its course until its 
waters, after their ceaseless journey for thousands 
of miles, find rest in the bosom of the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

The main pass, known as Pass a Loutre, trends 
away to the eastward and carries an average of 
50 per cent of the volume of the main stream, but 
its channel is so tortuous and unsatisfactory that 
it has been unused for many years, except by small 
coasting schooners of ver}' light draft. 

The center channel is known as the South Pass 
and is at present the only one navigable by ocean- 
going vessels from the main river to the ocean. 
This was a channel of no account until Mr. Eads, 
under his contract with the Federal Government, 
improved it, and even now it carries but an average 
of some eight per cent of the river's volume to the 
Gulf. 

The other and by far the finest and most perma- 
nent channel to the ocean is through the South- 
west Pass, which carries an average of some 41|-. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



195 



per cent of the volume of the river througli its 
banks to the Gulf of Mexico. 

The recent survey by Mr. J. A. Ockerson, made 
under the direction of the first Southwest Pass 
Board, is admitted to be most complete, and by 
comparing it with the several surveys made during 
the past sixty years it is found that the Southwest 
Pass is more constant in form and condition than 
perhaps any other part of the immense river. In 
the course of over fifty years the greatest alteration 
observable is its elongation some three miles by the 
deposit of silt carried down the river, which settles 
as soon as the current loses its force in the waters 
of the Gulf. 

From just below the mouth of the Red River, 
300 miles from the ocean, there is a glorious river, 
never less than half a mile wide, with a minimum 
depth at its lowest stage of fifty feet of water, 
the volmne of which reaches the inconceivable 
magnitude of 2} million tons of water flowing by a 
given place ever)' minute, capable of easy and safe 
navigation by the largest ocean vessel the world 
has yet, or probably ever will see. Right clear 
down through the Southwest Pass to within three 
miles of the Gulf does this unrivaled navigable 
stream continue unimpeded, reciuiring no works o- 



man to fit it for the commerce of the great con- 
tinent, and there is recjuired but the works to con- 
verge and control this volume of water so that it 
may cut its way through the obstruction at its 
mouth and carry its silt into the vast depths of the 
ocean beyond. The works of Eads at the mouth 
of its smallest and least important mouth demon- 
strate decisively what can be accomplished at the 
mouth of its most valuable and reliable outlet, and 
upon this point the able engineers who have so 
carefully investigated this matter are unanimously 
agreed. 

Let these works be accomplished and the great 
river will have at last entered upon its beneficent 
mission as a mighty factor in the welfare of the 
millions who toil in the immense territory through 
which it flows, saving to them annually in reduced 
cost of ocean transportation of their products to 
the markets of the world more than the total cost 
of the works of improvement. Commerce will then 
have thrown open to it its grandest harbor, where 
Nature herself has done nearly all the work and 
man is required to do but little, and therefore, ex- 
pense being avoided, economy will have full sway 
in helping forward the welfare and the happiness 
of mankind. 



STEAM- 
SHIP 
LYING 




AT WHARFS 

OF 

NEW ORLEANS 



196 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




Past— Present— Prospective 



197 



THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI- VALUE OF 

DEEP WATER* 



By ELMER LAWRENCE CORTHELL, C. E. 



The history of the commercial and naval use of 
the several mouths of the Mississippi River since 
the Spanish occupation is exceedingly interesting. 
The attempts of our Government to deepen the 
bars by dredging and other means are so well 
known as a matter of modern history that it is un- 
necessar)^ to go into details. But a comprehensive 
or bird's-eye view will, at the outset, be profitable. 

The mouth of the Mississippi is the natural out- 
let, and on the line of least resistance, either by 
water or by rail, of one of the largest and richest 
agricultural valleys of the civilized world. It com- 
prises 768,000,000 acres, nearly as large as all 
Western Europe combined, and capal)le of sup- 
porting as dense a population. 

During the ante-bellum period the shallows over 
the bars at the mouth of the river did not present 
so great an obstacle to commerce as sul^secjuently. 
Still, even in 1859 it had become a very serious 
obstacle, as will be seen from the fact that at one 
time over $7,000,000 of merchandise was detained 
there waiting many days to come in or go out. 
Among the goods thus delayed were 72,000 bales 
of cotton; a httle later there were fifty-frve vessels 
detained at one time. 

Coming down to a subsequent period, 1872 to 
1877, there were detained at the bar, by grounding 
or otherwise, 417 vessels; during which period the 
United States Government made strenuous en- 
deavors, by dredging, to maintain, through the 
bars at the mouth of Southwest and Northeast 
passes, 18 feet of water in a narrow channel about 
one and a quarter miles long. 

In 1873 a board of United States army ofihcers 
was appointed to examine plans for a canal, and 
was subsequently instructed to report upon the 
practicability of improving one of the natural out- 
lets of the river. 

It reported adversely, January 13, 1874, upon 
the jetty plan as it was the opinion that the sea 



ends of the works would be undermined; that the 
foundations on which the works would rest were 
unstable, and that there would be an accelerated 
advance of the bars. The board believed it would 
be difficult to build or maintain the necessary 
works. There was, however, a minority report by 
one member, in which the feasibility of jetties was 
suggested and the opinion advanced that there 
were sufficient favoral^le conditions to at least 
pause long enough for mature study and investi- 
gation, "especially when we weigh the inestimaljle 
benefit of an open river mouth." 

In May, 1873, Mr. James B. Eads, who had just 
completed the St. Louis JDridge, and had other ex- 
perience upon the Mississippi River as a builder of 
ironclads, and in quite extensive wrecking- business 
with a diving bell, visited the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi, in company with a large congressional dele- 
gation, and at the time unhesitatingly declared 
that the proper way to remove the olDStruction to 
commerce was by parallel dikes or jetties at the 
mouth of one of the passes. 

In February, 1874, he made a formal proposi- 
tion to Congress to open the mouth of the river 
by making- and maintaining a deep channel Ise- 
tween Southwest pass and the Gulf of Mexico, on 
the plan of "no cure, no pay." 

It is useless, and would be a reflection upon 
many men who honestly differed with Mr. Eads, 
both in Congress and out of it, to go into the 
controversial history of the matter, especially as 
most of the actors in the drama have passed away. 
However, the facts of the legislation need to be 
briefly stated. 

The heated controversy led to the passage of a 
bill authorizing the appointment by the President 
of a board of seven engineers — three from the 
army, three from civil life, and one from the United 
States Coast Survey. The Board went to Europe 
to personally examine jetties there. 



*Froni paper written ia 1S97 — Ed. 



198 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



On January 13, 1875, the report of this board 
was presented to Congress by the Secretary of 
War. 

They made an estimate of $11,514,200 for a 
canal. They reported ag'ainst the "stirring pro- 
cess" then in use by the Government. 

They reported in favor of the jetty plan, and se- 
lected South pass in preference to one of the other 
larger passes, believing that although its width 
was only 700 feet, as against the 1,400 feet of 
Southwest pass, it would be adequate for the pres- 
ent and prospective wants of commerce, contem- 
plating a depth of 25 feet as a minimum to be 
maintained. The estimates for construction and 
maintenance were $7,943,110 for South pass and 
$16,053,124 for Southwest pass. 

The report was signed by all the members of the 
board, except one, who thought the chances of 
success did not justify the recommendations of the 
board. 

Soon after the submission of the report, Mr. 
Eads made a new proposition to Congress to make 
a channel 30 feet deep at the mouth of Southwest 
pass and maintain it for twenty years. 

He had previously urged upon the board forcibly 
and eloquently to report in favor of Southwest 
pass. The words used are too important at this 
juncture to be kept back. 

"It is rarely that gentlemen of our profession 
have such an opportunity of indelibly recording 
their judgement. I earnestly trust that you will, on 
this occasion, unanimously recommend the im- 
provement of the Southwest pass, and thus leave, 
as an imperishable evidence of your foresight and 
public spirit, such a deep and broad channel at the 
mouth of the grandest physical feature of this con- 
tinent, as shall win for you the thanks and praise 
of the hundreds of millions which the Mississippi 
valley will hereafter contain, and whose grand com- 
merce must naturally and forever seek that route 
to the sea." 

Briefly, the objections of Mr. Eads to the South 
pass were (and his predictions have been fulfilled), 
first, that the extensive shoal in the head of South 
pass would be difficult of removal and the channel 
through it difficult of navigation, and, second, that 
the channel through the twelve miles of the pass 
was too small for easy navigation and inadequate 
to the growing wants of commerce. 

Regardless of the recommendations of the board 



in favor of South pass, the House of Representa- 
tives, upon the unanimous recommendations of 
the Committee on Commerce, passed the bill in 
favor of Southwest pass, with only two dissenting 
votes; but on reaching the Senate it was amended 
to apply to the small pass, the reason being that, 
having obtained the advice of a board of army en- 
gineers, who had reported in favor of the Fort St. 
Philip canal, and then of a subsequent board who 
had recommended jetties at the little pass, it would, 
in case Mr. Eads did not accomplish what he con- 
tracted to do at Southwest pass, have no defense 
for having refused the advice of its own experts; 
no doubt the greater cost had something to do 
with the decision. 

The Senate committee were immovable, and Mr. 
Eads was informed that if he would give the same 
guarantees and agree to produce the same depth in 
the little pass, and build the works for $5,250,000 
and maintain them for 20 years for $100,000 per 
annum, the improvement would be placed in his 
hands, otherwise not. The bill thus amended was 
passed, all of the discussion and action taking place 
in considerable haste in the last hours of that Con- 
gress, the concurrence of the House being secured 
just before final adjournment, on March 3, 1875. 

The dimensions of channel as to width proposed 
for the much larger Southwest pass, four times as 
large in volume, remained in the bill, and a full dis- 
cussion and study of the compHcated questions at 
the head of the passes, or throug'h the pass, found 
no time in the haste due to the closing of the 
session. 

The maximum dimensions between the jetties, 
from the deep water of the pass to the deep water 
of the gulf, were 30 feet deep and 350 feet in width 
at that depth, and the dimensions through the pass 
and the shoal at its head were simply a navigable 
depth of 26 feet. 

In order to definitely interpret this and some 
other features of the contract. Secretary of War 
Cameron, on November 2, 1876, referred some 
questions to a board of three United States en- 
gineers entirely familiar with the matter. The sec- 
ond question was, 

"Query 2. — What depth and width of channel 
is it desirable to secure permanently through this 
shoal?" 

The answer was: 

"The second proviso to section 4 of the act de- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



199 



mands a navigable depth 'through said pass,' and, 
of course, through this shoal, of 'twenty feet' 
within thirty months, and 'an additional depth of 
not less than two feet during each succeeding year 
thereafter, until twenty-six feet shall have been se- 
cured.' We deem these depths to be satisfactory, 
and, considering that an inland channel requires 
less depth for equal facility of navigation than a sea 
exposed bar, that they are fairly equivalent to the 
greater depths demanded by the act in its fifth 
section for the 'wide and deep channel connecting 
the pass with the Gulf of Mexico.' " 

It being evident that the dimensions between 
the jetties abovQ stated were not adapted to the 
size of the small pass. Congress passed an amenda- 
tory act, March 3, 1879, reducing the maximum 
dimensions of the channels so as to read "26 feet 
in depth and not less than 300 feet in width at the 
bottom," and "30 feet in depth without regard to 
width." The depth of 3G feet in the head of the 
pass and in the pass itself and the above dimensions 
in the jettied channel have been the legal require- 
ments by the War Department upon Mr. Eads and 
his executors from that date to the present time. 

Another question submitted by the Secretary of 
War in 1877 to a board of United States engineers 
related to dredging. The board reported that it 
was a proper method as an auxiliary and referred 
to the report of Humphreys and Abbott and to that 
of the board of 1874, in both of which dredging 
was recommended as a necessary accessory to jet- 
ties. They state that the act under which the jet- 
ties were constructed clearly intends that jetties 
and auxiliary works shall be the effectual agents, 
but allows of dredging as auxiliary, and they refer 
to the procurement of a wide and deep channel as 
so exclusively due to the "jetties and auxiliary 
works that the aid of appliances, if in such dredg- 
ing is included, was utterly insignificant." 

Taking the whole volume of bar removal into 
consideration, some millions of cubic yards, a large 
estimate of the dredging would be 1 per cent of 
the whole. 

The requirement of the act that three dimen- 
sions of the channel through the jetties should be 
maintained has made a resort to dredging impera- 
tive, and the very fact that controlled natural 
forces accomplished the formation of the channel 
makes it evident that artificial dimensions of a 
congressional enactment are difficult of mainte- 



nance by natural agencies. It has been found often 
difficult to keep the channel the full legal width 
when the river seemed to have its own reasons for 
making a much deeper channel than 30 feet, or to 
maintain a full 30-foot depth in the center when 
the river was endeavoring to make a 36-foot chan- 
nel much wider than the legal requirements. 

Most of the dredging done in the last seventeen 
years was for the purpose of rectifying the form 
rather than the size of the channel, and at all times 
this channel througii the jetties has been equal to 
navigation requirements. 

It is now necessary to state and discuss some im- 
portant physical conditions at the head of the 
passes. 

An examination of the charts will show the com- 
plications existing there, and which Mr. Eads fully 
appreciated and wished to avoid by the selection of 
the larger pass. 

It can be stated advisedly that the problem pre- 
sented there for solution was one of the most diffi- 
cult, perhaps superlatively so, of any ever dealt 
with successfully. The problem at the mouth of 
the pass was very simple in comparison. "To get 
the water out throug-h one deep channel was a far 
more simple process than to get it into a small pass, 
through a narrow, artificially contracted channel, 
located immediately between two great natural 
outlets." 

There were many occult conditions, many sen- 
sitive but potent forces. There was an equilibrium 
of all of them that would, when disturbed, work 
great changes quickly and sometimes disastrously. 
The bed of the river is almost as easily moved as 
though formed of a semi-fluid mass. The sediment 
at high water, moving steadily seaward in solu- 
tion, takes the first opportunity to drop to the bot- 
tom after its long journey from the mountains and 
plains. The engineer can never know what will re- 
sult from handling such sensitive conditions, and 
yet so mighty — possibly a million cubic feet of 
water, loaded with sediment to its full capacity, 
passing in a second of time. 

The problem was further made extremely diffi- 
cult by the great depth and volumes of the ad- 
jacent passes, into which from the main river there 
was generally about thirty feet depth, whereas into 
South pass there was only fifteen. AVhile the ex- 
pression may not be literally true, it was almost 
like making the water run up hill to force a channel 



200 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



through the obstructing bar with such easy path- 
ways alongside of it down hill. 

An examination of the location of the works at 
the head of the passes shows that a contraction of 
the passageway into the South pass, and so a con- 
centration of the entering volume, and the raising 
of the surface of the water above in order to get 
more fall and conseciuentlj^ more than the normal 
velocity, thus producing scouring- or deepening, 
was the principle employed. It will be readily un- 
derstood that the greater fall thus made into South 
pass inlet would also make a greater than the 
normal fall into the two great adjacent passes, and 
as a result a scouring of their beds also, and, 
further, that, as there exists no obtruding or re- 
sisting bar in their channels, it would need a less 
slope of water surface to send the water down these 
deep passes than into the choked-up head of the 
South pass. 

This is what really happened and had to be met 
by preventing the enlargement of the sections of 
the deep passes by means of mattress sills built of 
brush laid as a carpeting entirely across them from 
their banks to the works in the head of the South 
pass. 

Tha entire river had to be bridled in order to 
compel it to follow the directions of the engineer. 

CAUSE OF THE DETERIORATION OF 
SOUTH PASS 

The pass-a-Loutre crevasse in the pass of that 
name, one mile and a half below the head of South 
pass, occurred in January, 1891. The fall or sur- 
face slope throug"h it at flood time was very steep, 
about 2j feet within a short distance. This had 
a very deleterious effect upon the South pass 
channel. 

It increased the volume of pass-a-Loutre from 
45 per cent of the whole river to 51 per cent, and 
decreased the volume of South pass from about 
10.5 per cent and 11 per cent to about 7 per cent; 
that is, it reduced its volume about one-third. 

It will readily be seen that this should be the 
result, for the slope into pass-a-Loutre from the 
main river has been steepened by this crevasse 
from about the normal 2 inches per mile to 6 inches 
per mile. There must necessarily be a side flow 
from the head of South pass down this slope, as 
the neutral point, where the river water separates 



to flaw into the respective passes, is above the 
works built in the head of South pass. 

Now, what would naturally be the result of these 
new conditions? To answer this the sedimentary 
conditions must be known and their effects under- 
stood. 

It is well known that alluvial streams quickly 
adapt themselves to their requirements. If the 
volume, by changes of other conditions, is in- 
creased, the size of the pass, its depth and width, is 
increased; the stream not only bears forward, and 
can easily do so, the weig"ht of sediment that is 
brought to it, but, in addition, it picks up from its 
own bed the alluvion through which it flows and 
carries that forward also, until, by such scouring 
and deepening and enlarging action, it has restored 
the equilibrium between the slope of water sur- 
face, volume and size of channel, and then the 
scouring ceases. Exactly the reverse happens 
when the volume for any reason is reduced below 
the requirements of the channel; the current is 
slackened, its force weakened, and it can no longer 
carr}^ forward all of its load of sediment, and it 
drops some of it in the channel. This process 
continues at each high water, when the water is 
charged with sediment, until at last it has reduced 
the size of its channel to conform to its volume 
and other requirements. 

This action of shoaling and diminution of chan- 
nel dimensions is just what we find to have taken 
place in the South pass and at the head of the 
pass. This process has continued for just six 
years. At least, this is the most potent factor in 
the changes so injurious to navigation that have 
taken place throughout the whole length of the 
pass, although it should be stated that the idea 
even of attempting to make and maintain a channel 
through the head of South pass was, as is now seen, 
ill-advised, and should never have been attempted, 
and probably would never have been carried out 
had Congress been able at the time to give more 
thought and study to the question. 

It may possibly be said that the jetties, two and 
one-quarter miles in length, at the mouth of the 
pass, have lengthened the total fall of the water 
surface bet\veen the fixed point at the head of the 
passes and the fixed plane of the Gulf of Mexico, 
and have, therefore, reduced the slope per unit 
of length through the entire pass, and, conse- 
quently, its velocity at high water and its silt- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



201 



carrying power and its requirement for as large a 
channel as it had at the outset before improve- 
ment. The above statement is in error simply 
because one important physical condition formerly 
existing has not been taken into account. The 
correct conditions are stated in the following quo- 
tation from a writer on this subject: 

"It has been stated that the slope of the water 
surface at flood river is flattened by extending 
jetties from the land into the sea; this is not the 
case. The sea bar before improvement is a sub- 
merged dam, and its effect, like any other dam, 
is to raise the water above it and flatten the river 
slope above it. Cutting it aiway and substituting 
a deep channel, with less resistance to the flow, 
steepens the river's slope back of the bar, and 
makes the conditions normal, producing a straight, 
even slope where there was a broken one for some 
distance above the jetties. There is no doubt that 
this happened at the mouth of South pass." 

The bed of the South pass has been filled up 
partly by an immense deposit of sediment, due 
largely to the depletion of its volume by the 
crevasse. The shoaling causes the bed to rise 
higher and higher, and has reached the danger 
limit! Hereafter there may be expected, during 
river conditions that may occur at any time in 
the periodic floods, deposits of sediment in the 
pass, or the formation of shoals and bars above 
the pass to such an extent as to be seriously dam- 
aging to navig'ation, and possibly prohibitive of it 
by deep draught vessels. 

While this| may not certainly happen this year 
or next year, it is only a question of a brief period 
when inevitably the conditions will operate .as pre- 
dicted.* 

The value to the Mississippi valley and these 
■entire United States of the open river mouth to 
the sea can scarce!)- be overestimated; even a con- 
servative estimate might, without absolute proof, 
be considered extravagant. 

To ascertain the money value of this channel 
during the last two decades, since the first ocean 
steamship passed through it, involves many com- 
plicated conditions difficult to analyze and place 
together for summation, but it is important to 
make some attempt at the calculation, in order 
to show and prove that it is of great importance to 
the entire country and the world over to maintain 
a channel at the mouth of the Mississippi adequate 



for the largest and deepest class of ocean vessels. 

The conditions prior to the opening of the 
channel have been sufficiently stated in the his- 
torical resume of the subject to give an idea of the 
serious obstacles to commerce. The maximum 
channel required by the contract with the Govern- 
ment was obtained in the summer of 1879, al- 
though ocean-going craft had begun to use it in 
1876 and 1877. 

By 1880 a marked increase in commerce and a 
notable reduction in ocean rates had occurred, and 
also in transportation rates from the Mississippi to 
the Atlantic seaboard. The shallow depth over 
the bar had previously prevented vessels drawing 
over 18 feet from coming to New Orleans. Those 
that did come demanded and received high rates 
of freight — f d per pound — 1] cents. Rates almost 
immediately went down to ^|d — J of a cent, both 
cotton and grain freights rapidly increasing in ton- 
nage. 

An estimate was made that the reduction in rates 
even at the beg'inning of operation of the channel 
eft'ected a saving in one year of over $4,000,000, 
in addition to the saving in insurance and in time 
by freedom from any detention on the bar. Five 
million dollars was conservatively estimated at that 
time as the annual saving to the producers of the 
Mississippi valley on productions finding a market 
through New Orleans. 

An important incidental benefit to the com- 
merce of all commercial nations resulted from the 
following peculiar conditions: Before 1875 New 
Orleans, although practically shut out from the 
deep-draught commerce of the world, was a favor- 
ite cotton port. The season was short, but the 
business was good, the rates of freight high, and 
the vessels of many nations came there during the 
cotton season regularly, and the profit of coming- 
was so great even for one trip that vessels were 
built for this port, although trading the rest of the 
year where they found much deeper water. But 
with the advent of deep water at the mouth of the 
Mississippi this condition was radically changed: 
everywhere it became known about the world that 
the port of New Orleans was opened to deep- 
draught vessels, and at once there began the con- 
struction of deeper vessels and of much greater 
tonnage to take advantage of these improved con- 
ditions. It is, therefore, not too much to say that 
the opening of this great cotton and grain port to 



■ For a remarkable confirmation of this prediction see next page. 



202 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




SHIP AGROUND IN SOUTH PASS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



203 



deep-draught vessels brought about as much as 
any other cause the era of great ships. Shall the 
port that worked such a beneficent revolution in 
the world's commerce be allowed to degenerate 
into a fourth-rate port, sealed up against the very 
ships which it has caused to be built?' 

Knowing the rapidity with Avhich the news of 
the great success at the mouth of the Mississippi 
passed from port to port and country to country, 
and. subsequently, of the inaug-uration by the 
efforts of the same engineer of the Mississippi river 
improvement, is it surprising that the first Amer- 
ican to receive the Albert medal by the Society 
of Arts of Great Britain should be James Buchanan 
Eads "for improving the water communications of 
North America"? 

It is now necessary to trace some still more im- 
portant developments than those recorded in 1880. 
The last sixteen years have recorded benefits prop- 
erly attributable to this port, with which the entire 
country is concerned and will appreciate when 
stated. 

Referring- to tonnage of vessels again, there has 
been a steady advance yearly since 1876. In that 
year the average tonnage of all vessels entering 
the port was 732. In 1882, when the new and 
larger traffic had got fairly under way, 1,039 tons; 
in 1891, 1,257 tons; in 1896, 1,.511 tons, an increase 
over 1876 of about 100 per cent. Briefly sum- 
marizing other commercial changes, the draught 
of vessels has increased from 17-2- ^^^t to over 26 
feet, and steamships have largely displaced sailing 
vessels. 

New Orleans trades with nearly every port of 
the world. In 1895 it traded with 29 countries, 
and last year there were vessels there from 178 
ports. 

The larger proportion of steamships now belong 
to regular lines, not "tramps," as formerly. 
Twenty-five regular lines, many of them running 
a large number of steamships, do a regular busi- 
ness at this port, sailing at regular intervals and 
at stated times. 

In 1870 there were only four regular foreign 
lines. Examining the list of steamers belonging 
to regular lines, there will be found many of 4,000 
tons and upwards, there being now thirteen of 
over this tonnage; there are twO' of over 5,000 and 
under 6,000 tons, and two of over 8,000 tons, and 
there are ten of over 4,000 tons not belonging to 



regular lines, but which do a regular business at 
New Orleans. 

The two steamships above mentioned are 
8,195.66 tons gross; displacement, 16,070 tons; 
dead weight capacity, 11,150 tons; cubic capacity, 
freight tons, 14,800, of 40 cubic feet, deepest 
draught, loaded, 28.6 feet mean, or 30 feet by the 
stern, requiring a 31-foot depth of channel. These 
vessels are 485 feet over all and 55 feet breadth; 
they are 39 feet 6-| inches in depth. They cannot 
load, however, to more than three-quarters of 
their capacity, as the channel to the sea is not of 
sufficient depth. They belong to the West India 
and Pacific Steamship Company. These details 
are given to show that steamships regularly trad- 
ing at this port require a larger and deeper channel 
than now exists through the South pass. Already 
New Orleans is discriminated against in com- 
parison with other ports of deeper draught, and it 
becomes more and more evident that, if she is to 
hold her commerce, there must in the near future 
be provided a larger channel to the sea than 26 feet. 

It is unnecessary to remind Congress that it has 
itself inaugurated, under the strenuous demands 
of various ports of the first class, such as New 
Orleans is, a depth of 30 feet. 

In the last River and Harbor act, of June 3, 
1896, the channel depth in the harbor of Baltimore, 
Md., is to be deepened to 30 feet, and under ex- 
aminations to be made by the Secretary of War 
are found the following items: 

28 feet depth of channel at Annapolis, Md.; 30 
feet deep and 600 feet wide at Philadelphia; 30 
feet deepi and 1,200 feet wide at Boston; 35 feet 
deep at New York, from the Narrows to the sea; 
30 feet deep and 1,200 feet wide in New York 
harbor, between the Battery and Governor's 
Island. 

Existing projects contemplate 30 feet at Gal- 
veston; the same depth has been obtained at the 
mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon; and it may 
be incidentally remarked that this depth of channel 
at low water has been obtained at Liverpool, Eng- 
land, where there was formerly only 11 feet, par- 
ticularly in order to admit American commerce 
without detention by waiting for tide. 

The vast benefits of the Mississippi open river 
mouth is not alone to the ocean cominerce. The 
changed conditions that brought that commerce 
have also brought a great railroad commerce. 



204 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



As late as ISSO there were only two main lines 
into New Orleans. There are now six. Formerly 
the Illinois Central to Chicago, but broken by the 
Ohio river at Cairo, and the New Orleans and 
Mobile, since merged into the Louisville and 
Nashville system. The Southern Pacific was not 
opened through until 1883. The New Orleans and 
Northeastern (Queen and Crescent) was built later 
than 1880, and the Yazoo' and Mississippi Valley, 
from New Orleans to Memphis, now merged into 
the Illinois Central system. The Texas and Pacific 
has been built, reaching to many Texas points, 
and there, are two local roads extending some dis- 
tance down the river on each side; and the New 
Orleans and Western, a belt railroad in the rear 
of the city, with its terminal at Chalmette, below 
the city, where it has extensive facilities for han- 
dling cotton and grain. 

There are few, if any, ports of the world that 
have railway systems directly tributarj^ to them as 
comprehensive and far-reaching as those which 
terminate in the city of New Orleans. 

In 1876 the total rail commerce was 731,514 
tons; in 1892, 3,980,996 tons; in 1894:, 4,014,072 
tons, an increase of 463 per cent over 1876. The 
total number of loaded cars increased from 151,332 
in 1880 to 517,555 in 1892, 222 per cent, the latter 
averaging much larger and with much greater 
loads. 

Comparing the total commerce at New Orleans, 
ocean, rail, and river, there were in 1876, 5,427,- 
827 tons, and in 1895, 10,397,493 tons, nearly 100 
per cent increase. From the annual and quite 
regular increase of all the traffic it is reasonable to 
expect by the end of 1899 nearly 12,000,000 tons. 

All, or nearly all, this immense increase in com- 
merce is properly attributable to the jetties. One 
of the most important commercial developments at 
New Orleans has been the Southern Pacific and 
Morgan steamship coastwise business between the 
Pacific coast and New York. 

This route was opened for business in 1883; pre- 
vious to that it had run comparatively small 
steamers of about 1,800 tons to New York; now 
there are ten from 3,000 to 4,664 tons' — a total, 
with the Texas and Cuban lines, of about 50,000 
tons. The great value of ocean transportation in 
competition with rail is seen in the ability of this 
Morgan Line steamship route to compete with all 
rail across the countrv. It is a half water route 



between the tiwo coasts of the United States. The 
same interest not only controls, but operates the 
rail and water route from San Francisco to New 
York. Previously the overland rail route had 
handled the through trafific between the Atlantic 
seaboard and San Francisco, to the great dissatis- 
faction of shippers and merchants in San Fran- 
cisco. The time of transit was about sixty-five 
days and it was exceedingly uncertain of date of 
arrival, so that the merchants were placed at a 
great disadvantage, being unable to make arrange- 
ments for their business or to give their orders 
with any expectation of a definite arrival of the 
goods. The Southern Pacific undertook at the 
outset to do this business regularh^ and with dis- 
patch, agreeing not to have the goods en route 
over twenty-five days. It fulfilled its engage- 
ments, met all losses promptly that occurred by 
wrecks or other casualties, and it has reduced the 
time since then to about sixteen days. 

This improvement in method and time com- 
pelled the eastern connection of the Central Pacific 
and other transcontinental lines to change entirely 
their traffic methods in order to meet the com- 
petition of this New Orleans route, until they also, 
by better management and less delay at terminal 
points and yards, reduced their time to twenty-five 
days, and have been able to maintain it until the 
present time. 

The tonnage moved between Pacific coast points 
(Arizona and New Mexico excepted) and New 
York via New Orleans, in connection with the 
Morgan Line of steamers, has increased from 
36,000 tons in 1883, when the route was opened, 
to about 215,000 tons in 1896. 

It will be seen from this illustration of the devel- 
opments at the port of New Orleans how far- 
reaching has been the benefits of the Mississippi 
jetties. It would be difficult to estimate the money 
value of these great advantages to the Pacific 
coast, but it is very large. 

Discussing now the actual commercial advan- 
tages that have accrued to the Mississippi valley 
region and the country at large, some important 
statements in the way of comparisons need to be 
made. 

It was expected in 1879 that the Mississippi 
river would, within a reasonable time, be improved 
by the Government between New Orleans and St. 
Louis, so that a deep draught barge navigation 



Past— Present— Prospective 



205 



could be employed to bring at minimum cost the 
products of the Mississippi valley to ship side at 
the port of New Orleans. 

The Government has thus far failed to accom- 
plish this, and as a result of this and the active 
railroad competition the river traffic has decreased, 
particularly above the delta country. In 1S7G the 
freight tons arriving and departing by river were 
3,313,014; in 1892, 1,934,925, the respective 
values being $173,826,434 and $72,760,956, a de- 
crease of 41-i- per cent in tonnage and 59 per cent 
in value. The river traffic conditions since 1892, 
due to continued low water and inadequate depth 
for navigation in some years, are not improving, 
to say the least. Notwithstanding this unfortunate 
situation, the river has been able, through the en- 
tire period of twenty years, to assert its ability to 
regulate, or at least affect, rates and to hold them 
down on railroad traffic wherever the latter comes 
to the river or moves along its banks. It is un- 
necessary to state in detail the well-established re- 
sults of competition in lowering rates under such 
conditions. The water compels the railroad near 
it to reduce its charges; this compels other rail- 
roads in the same territory to do the same, even 
lines intersecting are affected, local rates are re- 
duced as well, the effect extends finally to remote 
lines and districts until the entire country is more 
or less benefited. The claim made for the Missis- 
sippi jetties, that they have made living cheaper to 
the entire Atlantic seaboard, as well as to the Mis- 
sissippi valley and the great interior country, is 
well founded. 

This competitive condition of rail with river and 
North and South lines of rail with each other, and 
particularly with East and West lines to the At- 
lantic seaboard, has led to the development of an 
immense traffic at low- rates throughout the entire 
Mississippi valley. The railroads have not only 
appreciated the great advantages of this port, with 
'its deep entrance for vessels of large tonnage, but 
have gone to work to take advantage of it, as has 
been shown above. There has, therefore, been es- 
tablished what may generall}' be called the "Missis- 
sippi valley route," by water and rail, in place of 
the former "Mississippi river route," by water only. 

The area is wider still, if we consider the far- 
reaching points of the railroads directly tributary 
to the port, extending much beyond the drainage 
area of the Mississippi and its tributaries. Ap- 



proximately, therefore, we may say, to convey 
some idea of the tributary commerce of New 
Orleans, there are 16,000 miles of navigable river 
and 16,000 miles of rail, reaching all over Texas 
and to States eastward, some of the waters of 
which empty into the gulf elsewhere. Therefore, 
we should call it the "New Orleans route." 

It is this great comprehensive system of rail 
commerce that makes it of vastly greater impor- 
tance than formerly to the whole country to main- 
tain an adequate entrance to the port of New 
Orleans for the largest and deepest class of ocean 
vessels. 

"Importance to the whole country" are words 
used advisedly, as will be shown b)' some figures 
given further on to show the value of the New 
Orleans route as a competitor with routes extend- 
ing from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic sea- 
board and to Europe, and from the interior of the 
southwest and west to other points on the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

At this very time the Illinois Central Railroad 
is exerting marked influence upon rates by bring- 
ing to New Orleans for European shipment an 
immense tonnage of cotton and grain, which it is 
shipping through its extensive facilities at that city. 

In a recent paper before the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, in "Some 
notes upon the Delta of the Mississippi," I used 
the following words applicable to the present ques- 
tion: 

"Great terminals are now being completed at 
New Orleans to accommodate the immense busi- 
ness coming there for shipment to Europe and the 
Atlantic seaboard cities from the great valley of the 
Mississippi directly tributary to this port. 

"The commercial ad\'antages of the improve- 
ments at the mouth of the Mississippi have 
brought to New Orleans a commerce far beyond 
the expectations of even its most sanguine advo- 
cates, and this commerce, in size of vessels, in mag- 
nitude, and in its value to the country and the world, 
has by no means reached its limit, but is still ex- 
panding and assuming greater and greater propor- 
tions and importance. 

"The commerce demands, however, the very 
largest steamships to take the greatest advantage 
of all the favorable conditions, \^'ere an adequate, 
permanent, constant channel for such vessels to 
the sea assured, there would be no question of the 



206 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: 



€arly construction of 10,000-ton freight carriers to 
run between New Orleans and western Europe. 

"Opening a competitive route to all rail from 
the interior to the Atlantic seaboard by way of the 
jetties has affected commerce, and through it this 
entire country, and Europe as well, for it has re- 
duced rates from the Mississippi valley and the 
west and the Pacific to the Atlantic seaboard and 
Europe. It is not too much to say that it has made 
bread cheaper to those great populations that re- 
quire the food products of the great central zone 
of our country and of the Pacific slope." 

An attempt will now be made to ascertain, ap- 
proximately, the money value to the people of the 
United States of a deep entrance to the port of 
New Orleans during the last two decades, cover- 
ing the period of influence of the jetties. 

It is necessary to g'o into some details of changes 
in freight rates: 

Fall and winter rates on cotton from New 
Orleans to 

LIVERPOOL AND HAVRE 

Per Pound. 

1872-'75 l-3i cents 

1876-'S0 91 cent 

1881-'85 74 cent 

lS86-'90 68 cent 

1891-'95 47 cent 

1896-'97 • i-i cent 

TO NEW YORK 

1872-'75 78 cent 

1876-'80 58 cent 

1881-'85 37 cent 

1886-'90 43 cent 

1891-'95 34 cent 

lS96-'97 30 cent 

All rail grain rates from East St. Louis to New 
York: 1877, 41 cents per 100 pounds; 1895, 23.57 
■cents. 

To New Orleans: 1895, 20 cents. 

Cotton rate to New York: 1895, 30 cents per 
100 pounds, which is the same as the water rate 
from New Orleans, the competition affecting it. 

River rate from St. Louis to New Orleans on 
•grain in sacks, by steamboat, 20 cents per 100 
pounds, which is about the same as in 1880. Dur- 
ing various years between these dates it has gone 
down to 15 cents and 16 cents, and as low as 14 



cents in 1884. The wheat rates in bulk by barges 
have ruled at about 10 cents per 100 pounds dur- 
ing the entire period. 

Rates per bushel on export wheat from St. Louis 
to Liverpool, via New Orleans, by river, and via 
New York, by rail: 1883, via New Orleans, 20c, 
via New York 27c; 1895, via New Orleans 12^c, 
via New York, 18.33c; the present via New York, 
from St. Louis, rate being about 50 per cent higher 
than via New Orleans. 

As to the volume of trafiic. Bulk grain exported 
from New Orleans in 1895, 9,644,377 bushels; re- 
ceived at New Orleans by river from St. Louis, 
1,690,417 bushels. The difference of 7,953,960 
represents mostly rail traffic to New Orleans from 
Mississippi valley States. 

Rates on the railroads have been as follows: 

Illinois Central, southern rate per ton per mile: 
1876, 1.72c; 1886, .68c; 1896, .64c. 

Reduction in rates per ton per mile (dates earlier 
than 1883 not accessible): 

Reduc- 
1883. 1895. tion. 

(1) Gulf and Mississippi val- 
ley States 1.66c .89c .77c 

(2) Southwestern States ... 1.88c 1.24c .64c' 

(3) Central northern States. 1.04c .71c .33c 

(4) Middle States 1.04c .74c .30c 

(5) Entire U. S 1.224c .839c .385c 

The total ton miles in 1895 in these groups of 
States and the LTnited States were as follows: 



(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 



38,000,000,000 

71,000,000,000 

316,000,000,000 

296,000,000,000 

890,000,000,000 



Assuming that the advantages and competition 
of the Mississippi jetties reduced the cost per ton 
mile 3-lOc in group one, 2-lOc in group two, 1-lOc 
in group three, and 5-lOOc in group four, and, add- 
ing to the above totals of traffic the approximate 
ton mileage for 1880-1882, and for 1896, we have 
for an estimate of reduction in cost of transporta- 
tion by rail, caused by the jetties, $394,000,000; 
or, per annum for the seventeen years, about $23,- 
000,000. As the reduction in i"ates has been pro- 
gressive, the reductions above stated have been 
divided by two for convenience of calculation to 
oljtain a fair averagfe. 



Past— Present— Prospective 207 

The receipts and shipments by ocean at New By reduction in cost of transportation 

Orleans amount to a total of 44,000,000 tons since by rail $23,000,000 

1880 (the amount in the previous decade not being ^y '"eduction in ocean rates. New Or- 

.,,,„,,. , leans busmess 6,4(0,000 

accessible). The reduction on rates on cotton and g^. reduction in ocean rates, other 

grain shipments since 1875 average about $10 per 'United States ports 4,400,000 

ton to Liverpool, Havre, Bremen, and New York. 

Assuming that one-half of this reduction is at- $33,8(0,000 
tributable to the jetties, and applying one-quarter There are, however, some elements to be con- 
of it to the entire tonnage, there results $110,000,- sidered on the other side of this question. The 
000, or $6,470,000 per annum of saving from this prices and rates by ocean and rail in 1876 to 1880 
port alone. were inflated on account of the currency inflation. 
It is difficult to estimate the reduction in rates The compressing of cotton for export, which 
from aU Atlantic and gulf ports caused by the Mis- began about 1889, reducing the size of bales at 
sissippi jetties, but it amounts to something. least tw^o-thirds of the "flat" bulk, tended to make 
From 1876 to 1895, inclusive, there were ex- lower rates of ship freight. The cost of compress- 
ported 1,300,000,000 bushels of corn, ecjual to ing being put upon the shippers also tended to 
36,400,000 tons; 1,400,000,000 bushels of wheat, reduce rates. 

equal to 42,000,000, tons, making a total of 78,- The improvement of other hai'bors along the 

400,000 tons of grain, and about 22,000,000 tons of Atlantic and gulf coast may have exerted a greater 

cotton; a total of the above three articles of export influence upon rates than we attributed to them, 

of, say, 100,000,000 tons. Possibly the general tendency all over the world 

The reduction in rates at New Orleans has made to lessen the cost of transportation on land and 

some reduction on this large export business, and water, rail and steamship, may not have been fully 

there might reasonably be applied to 89,000,000 credited with its effect. 

tons (having deducted the New Orleans tonnage). The influence of the Erie canal and the great 
$1 per ton — $89,000,000, or, say, $4,400,000 per lakes route in reducing or affecting rail rates may 
annum during the tw^enty years. also have exerted a greater effect upon the North- 
There are many other export articles to which ern. Central, and Middle States groups of railroads 
this calculation might properly be applied, and than we have taken into consideration, and there 
there has been no account taken of any imports or may be other potent influences at work not con- 
receipts by coastwise business, except at New sidered. 

Orleans. These would swell the total to much Allowing to all these factors a generous amount 

larger figures. of influence, we reduce the figures to $25,000,000 

Summing up the annual saving, above stated, we as the annual money value of the Mississippi jetties 

have the following as the approximate money to the people of this country, with the belief that 

value annually to the country from the Mississippi more extended calculations and considerations 

jetties: would greatly swell this estimate. 




208 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-, 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION 



Incidents Leading Up to the Formation of this Important Commission, Etc. 



"In considering" the Mississippi river, we must 
regai'd it as a river of sand as well as of water." In 
the foregoing sentence, Hon. Randall Lee Gibson, 
United States Senator from Louisiana, pithily 
stated the problem which it has been the endeavor 
of civil and military engineers to solve for three- 
quarters of a century. This problem presents phe- 
nomena seemingly discordant and irreconcilable, 
and yet known to be controlled by and obedient to 
fixed laws. To obtain accurate knowledge of these 
laws was the first essential step toward the perfec- 
tion of a plan that should overcome all diffi- 
culties and keep this mighty stream under human 
control. 

The first official action by the general govern- 
ment in this direction was taken in 1S22, when two 
engineer officers of the army, General S. Bernard 
and J. G. Totten, after a careful study ol the river, 
made an elaborate report (December 22, 1822) in 
which they set forth the result of their investiga- 
tions, and declared : "The only means which ap- 
pear practicable to us is the construction of dikes. 
They operate by diminishing the current above 
them, thus economizing the expanse of water, at 
the same time constraining the current to rush with 
greater velocity through the narrow space to be 
deepened." 

In the same report they describe the effects of the 
floods they had witnessed, saying : "While the wa- 
ters of this river are over its banks, the operation of 
the current being in proportion to its elevation and 
consequent increase of velocity, the changes which 
are produced in the bed of the river are great, sud- 
den and numerous. Then are produced those mul- 
tiplied turns and elbows which so strikingly charac- 
terize this great river, and which increase its chan- 
nel to the double what it would have been if the 
banks could have resisted its current. The corre- 
sponding concave parts of these turns are some- 
times separated only by a very narrow neck, which 
being cut through by the waters, as often happens, 
present a new and navigable channel of perhaps a 



half mile in length, in lieu of the old one of 15 or 
20 miles. The abandoned channel is entirely di- 
vided from the river except in floods, and on the 
west side, especially, becomes a lake." 

The floods of the Mississippi are one of the phe- 
nomena to be understood that they may be regu- 
lated. The other is the low-water periods. "At 
certain seasons of the year," said Senator Gibson, 
in one of his instructive speeches, "the water sub- 
sides, the channel is blocked by snags and sandbars, 
and for a great distance there is only from four to 
eight and a-half feet depth. This condition contin- 
ues not for a few days or a few weeks, but for several 
months during every year, interrupting trade and 
commerce, and making its navigation difficult and 
perilous; the largest and costliest boats, in which 
great sums are invested, and that g'ive employment 
to thousands of people, are compelled to lie idle; 
the navigation of the river is almost as effectually 
closed as if artificial dams were built across its bed." 

While the report made in 1822 by army engi- 
neers awakened much interest in the improvement 
in the Mississippi, and was probably the primary 
movement which ultimately led to the lai'ge grant 
of public lands made in 1840, yet there was not at 
that time any popular comprehension of the im- 
portance of the work needed, or of the vast national 
interests that would be served if it were undertaken 
and accomplished. In 1845, two distinguished Con- 
gressmen, James Gadsen and James Guthrie, acting 
as a sub-committee, made as thorough an exami- 
nation of the subject as was possible, and prepared 
a report upon the navigation of the Mississippi, 
which was approved by Hon. John C. Calhoun, 
who submitted it to Congress. In that report the 
situation was carefully stated, and it was said : 

"The expenditures on the Mississippi thus far, if 
reports are to be credited, have produced no results 
corresponding to the vast sums appropriated. 
When the channel has been straightened at one 
point it has been lengthened at another, and ob- 
structions or deposits in one bend have only been 




LIEUT. COL. AMOS STICKNEY 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 




ROBERT S. TAYLOR 
Civilian Member 



THE MISSISSIPPI 




MAJ. THOS. H. HANBURY 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



^. 




GEN. GEO. L. GILLESPIE 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 
President of the Commission 





J. A. OCKERSON, C. E. 




HENRY L. MARINDIN 
United States Coast and Geographical Survey 



RIVER COMMISSION 



B. M. HARROD, C. E. 



210 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



transferred in their removal to another. 'Sawyers' 
and 'planters' haA^e in one season been reduced in 
number to be replaced b)- the succeeding one. 

"The only fact clearly established, and it is one 
to which attention should be particularly directed 
as bearing with peculiar influence on the proposi- 
tion submitted, is that where the banks of the 
Mississippi have been IcA'eed and prevented from 
inundating the swamps, the spring rises are scarce- 
ly perceptible, and the surplus waters are discharged 
by deepening the bed; its currents no longer able 
to rise and expand over a wider surface, they have 
to deepen the bed to furnish vent for the waters 
to be discharged. The reclaiming, therefore, the 
swamps and confining the river to its bed will 
deepen it, and do more to^ preserve unimpaired the 
navigation of the Mississippi than all the projects 
which have hitherto been devised or acted on for 
its improvement. The suggestion, however, is 
worthy of examination, and it is the stronger rec- 
ommended as it ma}- accomplish a great object 
at comparatively little cost. The swamps of the 
Mississippi now worthless, and made so by the inun- 
dations of that river, may be made, by their own 
reclamation, the instruments of improving the navi- 
gation of that stream." 

' In this declaration is shown the fact that although 
the work of the preceding years had been so discon- 
nected that what was done at one point had de- 
stroyed the work at some other, still the theory 
advanced by Engineers Bernard and Totten seems 
to have been pro^^ed correct. 

At great cost the country was gradually acquir- 
ing knowledge as to how to deal with this "river 
of sand as well as of water." It was also slowly, 
\'ery slowly indeed, beginning to learn that the 
great waterway that extended from Canada to the 
Gulf was a national stream, beyond the power of the 
interior States to improve and to control. In his 
last speech in Congress Henry Clay, the greatest 
of the distinguished galaxy of statesmen that 
adorned that era, referred to this public ignorance, 
or narrowness of view, with a pathos all the more 
impressive, because of his broad national ideas and 
his prolonged and eminent services to his country. 
The bill making appropriations for ri\'er and harbor 
im])rovements being before the Senate, Mr. Clay, 
after some preliminary remarks, said : 

"An honorable senator has gotten up and told 
us that here is an appropriation of $2,300,000. With 
regard to the appropriations made for that portion 



of the country from which I come, the great valley 
of the Mississippi, I will say that we are a perse- 
vering people, a feeling people and a contrasting 
people; and how long will it be before the people of 
this vast valley will rise en masse and tumble down 
your little hair-splitting distinctions about what is 
national, and demand what is just and fair on the 
part of this government in relation to their great in- 
terests? The Mississippi, with all its tributaries, 
constitute a part of a great system, and if the system 
be not national I should like to know one that is 
national. We are told that a little work, great in 
its value, one for which I shall vote with great pleas- 
urc' — the breakwater in the little State of Delaware 
— is a great national work, while a work which has 
for its object the improvement of that vast system 
of rivers which constitute the valley of the 'Missis- 
sippi, which is to save millions and millions of prop- 
ert}^ and many human lives, is not a work to be 
done because not national ! 

Around the region of the coast of the Atlantic, 
the Mexican Gulf and the Pacific coast everywhere 
we pour out in boundless and unmeasured streams 
the treasure of the United States, but none to the 
interior of the .West, the valley of the Mississippi. 
Every cent is contested and denied for that object. 

Sir, I call upon the Northwestern Senators, upon 
Western Senators, upon Eastern Senators, upon 
Senators from all quarters of the Union, to recollect 
that we are part of our common country." 

Had the facilities for the transmission of congres- 
sional proceedings been then what they are now, 
this address would have appeared in full in every 
morning paper in the land, and this appeal would 
have been responded to by the devoted friends of 
Henry Clay in every State. But it was heard only 
by his audience in the Senate chamber, and was then 
buried in the pages of the Congressional Record. 
It had its effect, however, upon pending legislation, 
for an appropriation for work on the Mississippi 
was made. 

In 1850 Colonel Humphrey and Captain Abbot, 
of the United States Engineers, were detailed to 
make a complete survey of the Mississippi. They 
spent ten years in the work. Their report has been 
pronounced "a monument of industry and learn- 
ing." It convinced many, in and out of Congress, 
that some continuous system ought to be adopted 
for insuring the commerce of the river against the 
losses consequent upon floods and low water pe- 



I 





THE LATE HENRY L. WHITNEY 



THE LATE JAMES B. EADS, C. E 



FORMER MEMBERS OF THE 




COL. CHAS. R. SUTER. 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 




THE LATE GEN, QUINCY A, GILLMORE 

Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

First President of tfie Commission 






COL, O, H. ERNST 
Corps of Engineers, U, S. A. 




THE LATE HENRY FLOD, C. E. 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION 



GEN, C, B, COMSTOCK 
Corps of Engineers, U, S, A, Former President 



212 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



riocls. The general opinion seems to have been that 
more levees should be built, and that those already 
constructed should be strengthened where neces- 
sary. Special committees were created by Con- 
gress, who agreed upon a bill for constructing lev- 
ees, which passed one house only to be lost in the 
other. Meanwhile, the people of the Mississippi 
delta were steadily taxing themselves to maintain 
the existing barriers, which were essential to their 
protection. .Then came the war, with its attendant 
devastation. During its continuance the levees 
were neglected, and many were either in part or 
wholly destroyed. Soon after peace was declared, 
in 1865, Secretary Stanton ordered the levees to be 
rebuilt, believing, says Senator Gibson, that it w^as 
an "act of humanity to restore these public works 
essential to the good order of society, and now 
needed more than ever by a people struggling with 
poverty amid social and political conditions involv- 
ing a disruption of traditions and customs and es- 
tal)lished relations, but it was not done." 

In 1SY4 a commission was again appointed to de- 
termine what oug-ht to be done. President Grant 
was strongly in favor of its recommendations to 
reconstruct the levees, but even his influence was 
not sufficiently powerful to produce favorable ac- 
tion in Congress. 

Meanwhile a new interest in the condition and 
needs of the lower Mississippi valley had been 
created that was to have a most potential influence 
upon its future. Population had followed the lines 
of the trans-continental railroads and their feeders 
until great States had been carved out of the coun- 
try on both sides of the Rocky mountains; pros- 
perous cities had sprung into existence; vast area.s 
of wilderness had been brought under cultivation, 
and for their immense crops of wheat and corn there 
was no adequate transportation. From all these 
fertile farms and prosperous cities came a demand 
for the improvement of the Mississippi. The plan 
of a voluntary association was suggested. St. Louis 
took the lead in this matter, and soon a powerful 
organization was effected, numbering in its mem- 
bership man}'- influential citizens of every State from 
Minnesota to Louisiana, and conventions were held, 
statistics were compiled, public spirit was aroused, 
and the public opinion of the entire region from 
Canada to the gulf was brought to bear upon Con- 
gress. The first tangible result of this spontaneous 
uprising was the organization in the House of Rep- 



resentatives of the forty-fourth Congress of a per- 
manent committee on levees, the first of the kind 
that had ever been created. This committee framed 
a bill for the rebuilding of the levees and for the 
protection of the entire alluvial region from floods, 
but although it was earnestly and ably advocated 
it failed to get a third of the votes of the House. 
The great West was determined that something 
should be done. At least the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi should be made an open gateway to the sea. 
Capt. James B. Eads, an eminent civil engineer of 
St. Louis, devised a plan for the accomplishment 
of this work, which was pressed upon and carried 
through Congress. The task was entrusted to the 
man whose genius had devised the plan, and he car- 
ried it through to a triumphant success. At last 
the nation recognized in some measure the impor- 
tance of the Mississippi river as a highway of com- 
merce. 

When the plan proposed by Captain Eads for 
making a permanent ship channel at the mouth of 
the Mississippi was first proposed, there were many 
engineers of eminence who doubted its feasibility, 
and some of them spent much time and labor in 
arguing against it. But after the great work had 
been accomplished and all that its ingenious in- 
ventor had promised had been more than fulfilled, 
the people of the upper as well as the lower valley 
were inspired with greater confidence than ever that 
human skill was equal to the task of confining the 
Mississippi within bounds that it should never pass, 
to the great advantage of commerce, and to the 
reasonable security of life and property throughout 
all the extensive region subject to frequent over- 
flows. 

If this could be accomplished there was every 
reason why it should be undertaken at once, for the 
rapid growth of the Northwest and the consequent 
increase of its grain crops made more and cheaper 
transportation facilities an imperative necessity. 
From the head of navigation to Port Eads this was 
the dominant subject of thought and discussion 
among- the people. "The wisdom of Congress 
should be invoked," said General Garfield, "to de- 
vise some plan by which the great river shall cease 
to be a terror to those who dwell upon its banks, 
and by which its shipping may safely carry the in- 
dustrial products of 25,000,000 of people." The 
people, by popular petitions, by memorials front 
chambers of conmicrce and boards of trade, by reso- 




CAPT. CHAS. L. POTTER 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 




CAPT. E. EVELETH WliNSLOW 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A, 




MAJ. GEO. M'C. DERBY 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 




CAPT. GRAHAfU D. I-ITCH 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



5. ENGINEERS AT PRESENT OR 
ORMERLY CONNECTED WITH 
MISSISSIPPI RIVER 




MAJ. S. W. ROESSLER 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A, 




MAJ. CLINTON B. SEARS 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



M. 



-m- 




MAJ. SMITH S. LEACH 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 



IMPROVEMENT UNDER THE MIS- 
SISSIPPI RIVER COM- 
MISSION 



2L4 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



lutions passed by the State legislatures, did invoke 
the wisdom of the Forty-fourth Congress. A meas- 
ure was introduced in that body April 2(i, 1S76, au- 
thorizing the President to a]3point a commission 
to improve the Mississippi river. Tliis was referred 
to the committee on commerce, which, in\'ited Cap- 
tain Eads to present his views as to the proper 
course to be pursued. That distinguished civil en- 
gineer had long been convinced that the conditions 
that existed at the mouth of the river prevailed 
throughout its entire length. In a pamphlet pub- 
lished by him in 1874 he stated that the chief por- 
tion of the sediment discharged b_\- the river into 
the Gulf is carried in suspension, and "that the 
amount of this matter and the size and weight of the 
particles which the stream is enabled to hold up 
and carry forward depend wholly upon the rapiditv 
of the stream, modified, however, by its depth." 
Later, in his review of Humphrey's and Abbott's 
report on the physics and hydraulics of the Missis- 
sippi, he argued on this basis, showing the relation 
between the current and the suspended sediment, 
and then demonstrating the practicability of deep- 
ening- the ri\-er and lo-wering the floods without the 
use of waste weirs or outlets. Following the same 
line of argument before the committee, "he held 
that by applying the jetty system to the river, con- 
fining its waters in their highest stages and con- 
tracting the channel where imduly wide and pro- 
tecting tlie banks against caving-, works \\holly 
practicable and inexpensive, a imiform channel 
might be obtained affording deep water all the year 
round for the largest vessels to St. Louis, and at the 
same time and by the same means the slope or flood 
surface would be so lowered as to pre\'ent destruct- 
ive floods — floods destructive not only to commerce 
and trade and the vehicles of transportation, to life 
and property on the river, but destructive of all 
government, of all industry, of the ]3roperty, the 
earnings, the schools, the churches, the very ex- 
istence of organized society throughout the wide 
alluvial region." 

In concluding his exhaustive argument Captain 
Eads said : 

"There can be no doubt of the entire feasibility 
of so correcting the Mississippi river from Cairo to 
the Gulf that a channel depth of 20 feet during the 
low-water seasons can he permanentlj' secured 
throughout its entire course, and that the alluvial 
lands on each side of its waters can be made abso- 



lutely safe from overflow without levees by such 
correction. This can be accomplished for a sum 
entirely within the ability of the government, and 
one really insignificant when compared with the 
benefits which wduld flow from such improvement. 
"Until such work is accomplished, an annual ex- 
penditure for the maintenance of the levees is im- 
perative." 

It is proper to say that there were some distin- 
guished ci\'il aufl military engineers, as well as some 
steamship captains and others doing business on 
the Mississippi, who held contrary opinions and ar- 
gued against those of Captain Eads with much ear- 
nestness and plausibility. But his views continued 
to gain ground the more they were criticised, and 
the emphatic declaration with which he concluded 
undoubtedly led Congress eventually to enact the 
law establishing the Mississippi River Commission. 

The Forty-fifth Congress, early in its session, en- 
larged the scope of the committee on levees l,)y 
adding to its title "and improvements of the Missis- 
sippi River," thus enabling it to take jurisdiction 
of all legislation on these subjects. Many measures 
were introduced and referred to this committee, 
which finally framed a substitute for them all, en- 
titled, "a bill to provide for the org-anization of the 
Mississippi river improvement commission, and for 
the correction, permanent location, and deepening 
of the channel and impro\'ement of the navigation 
of said river and the protection of its alluvial lands." 
This substitute was submitted to the House by 
Hon. E. W. Robertson, of Louisiana, to whose pro- 
found knowledge on this subject is due the framing 
and submission of this important measure. 

There were many in and out of Congress who 
were willing that whatever money was necessarv 
sliould be appropriated for improving the com- 
merce of the stream, who were at the same time op- 
posed to any expenditures for the protection of the 
alluvial lands. The idea Avas industriously circi;- 
lated by the op]5onents of all measures for improv- 
ing the Mississippi river, that this bill was an at- 
tempt in disguise to recover and give value to 
innnense areas of land belonging to private owners, 
and these insidious attacks had unquestionably con- 
siderable eiTect upon people who lived in other sec- 
tions remote from the valley, and were unac- 
quainted with its condition and needs. Two Massa- 
chusetts representatives, Messrs. Robinson and 
Banks, each, in ad\'ocating the commission bill, ex- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



215 



plained the necessity for the proposed action. Mr. 
Robinson said : 

"The committee have found these two subjects 
to be interdependent. The}- have not seen in tlie 
investigation they ha.ve given that the one neces- 
sarily stands apart from the other. All the writers 
and all the engineers from whom they have heard 
declare that in some measure, greater or less, the 
protection of the lands has also an influence upon 



the navio-able character of the river. 



This 



bill is intended to provide a commission to devise a 
plan for the improvement of the Mississippi river 
and the protection of the alluvial lands combined. 
If as a part of the whole plan for the improvement 
of the river for the purposes of navigation, and in- 
cidental thereto, the lands of the valley may l)e pro- 
tected, I am in favor of it." 

General Banks, whose campaigns on the lower 
Mississippi and its tril:)utaries had familiarized him 
with its conditions and needs, supported the bill 
ardently, and with patriotic breadth characteristic 
of that statesman, he said : 

'T have already stated that the improvement of 
the alluvial lands is incidental to this work. It can- 
not be separated from it. No declaration or act of 
Congress can prevent it. If we make the river what 
it ought to be we will make 40,000,000 acres of the 
best cotton and sugar lands on the face of the earth 
in consecjuence of the necessary improvement of the 
river— 40,000,000 where now only 1,000,000 exists. 
It is inseparable from it and incidental to the im- 
provement of the river." 

The late Randall L. Gibson, then a representa- 
tive, afterward a senator, from Louisiana, who from 
the beginning had been one of the most intelligent 
and indefatigable advocates of Mississippi river im- 
provement, said: 

"A jetty is a levee, in the popular sense of the 
word, within the bed or channel of the river, while 
a levee is a jettv on the bank of the stream. This 
plan rests u]5on the theory that in sedimentary riv- 
ers, in the Mississippi particularly, as the water is 
confined its velocity and depth is increased and the 
surface lowered, and that thus twO' great objects 
may be acomplished by one and the same method, 
namely, 'ease and safety' to navigation and protec- 
tion to the industrious people on the banks from the 
dreaded floods." 

Representatives by the chairman of the Commit- 
tee on the Laws and Improvement of the Missis- 
sippi River, Hon. E. W. Robertson, of Louisiana, 



in a speech advocating the appointment of a com- 
mission. He said of the bill then pending: 'Tt 
contemplates the improvement of the chief avenue 
of transportation of a great commercial nation. It 
also seeks to protect from Hoods and pestilence over 
26,000,000 acres of the most fertile and productive 
lands upon the face of the earth. It does not, as 
is so often alleged, aim at the reclamation of those 
lands, or seek to perform work which properly l)e- 
longs to the individual citizen. The word 'reclama- 
tion' is not used in this bill. It is well that we un- 
derstand the distinction at the outset of this dis- 
cussion, for the wrong use and confusion of terms 
ha\-e given the opponents of ri\Tr improvement avi 
opportunity to misinterpret, and therefore misre]i- 
resent, the object we seek to accomplish. The word 
'reclamation' has furnished them with the keynote 
of unjust criticism. We simply ask protection from 
the frequent ravages of this great rivet, over which 
no power but the General Government has legal 
control, in order that we who possess lands along 
its course .may ha\-e an opportunity to reclaim and 
cultivate them at our own expense." 

But notwithstanding the earnestness of the 
friends of the measure, and the unanswerable argu- 
ments urged in its favor, the bill failed. 

At the extra session of the Forty-sixth Congress 
several new bills were modeled on that which failed, 
but limiting the field of work. These were followed 
by one prepared by Representative Gibson, of Loui- 
siana, introduced May 10, 1879, entitled "a bill to 
provide for the appointment of a Mississippi River 
Commission' for the improvement of said river from 
the head of the passes near its mouth to its head- 
waters." This measure was sent to the committee, 
was favorably reported back to the House, which 
passed it the first week in June, \\ith but twenty 
votes against it. In the Senate it was amended in 
some unimportant particulars and then passed with 
but four adverse votes. The House accepted the 
Senate amendments, the l)ill was sent to the Presi- 
dent, and was approved June 2S, 1879. The fol- 
lowing is a verbatim copy of this important meas- 
ure : 

[Public— No. 34.] 
"An Act to Provide for the Appointment of a 'Mis- 
sissippi River Commission' for the Improvement 
of Said River from the Head of the Passes near 
its Mouth to its Head-waters. 
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives of the United States of America in Con- 



216 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



gress assembled, That a commission is hereby 
created, to be called 'The Mississippi River Com- 
mission,' to consist of seven members. 

Sec. 2. The President of the United States shall, 
by and with the consent of the Senate, appoint sev- 
en commissioners, three of whom shall be selected 
from the Engineer Corps of the Army, one from 
the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and three from 
civil life, two of whom shall be civil engineers. 
And any vacancy which may occur in the commis- 
sion shall in like manner be filled by the President 
of the United States; and he shall designate one 
of the commissioners appointed from the Engineer 
Corps of the Army to be president of the commis- 
sion. The commissioners appointed from the Engi- 
neer Corps of the Army and the Coast and Geo- 
detic Survey shall receive no other pay or compen- 
sation than is now allowed them by law, and the 
other three commissioners shall receive as pay and 
compensation for their services each the sum of 
$3,000 per annum; and the commissioners ap- 
pointed under this act shall remain in of^ce subject 
to removal by the President of the United States. 

Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of said commission 
to direct and complete such surveys of said river, 
between the Head of the Passes near its mouth to 
its headwaters as may now be in progress, and to 
make such additional surveys, examinations and 
investigations, topographical, hydrographical and 
hydrometrical, of said river and its tributaries, as 
may be deemed necessary by said commission to 
carry out the objects of this act. And to enable 
said commission to complete such surveys, exami- 
nations and investigations, the Secretary of War 
shall, when requested by said commission, detail 
from the Engineer Corps of the Army such officers 
and men as may be necessary, and shall place in the 
charge and for the use of said commission such ves- 
sel or vessels and such machinery and instruments 
as may be under his control and may be deemed 
"necessary. And the Secretary of the Treasury shall, 
when requested by said commission, in like manner 
detail from the Coast and Geodetic Survey sucli 
officers and men as may be necessary, and shall 
place in the charge and for the use of said commis- 
sion such vessel or vessels and such machinery and 
instruments as may be under his control and may be 
deemed necessary. And the said commission may, 
with the approval of the Secretary of War, employ 
such additional force and assistants, and provide. 



by purchase or otherwise, such vessels or boats and 
such instruments and means as may be deemed nec- 
essary. 

Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said commission 
to take into consideration and mature such plan 
or plans and estimates as will correct, permanently 
locate and deepen the channel and protect the banks 
of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety 
and ease to the navigation thereof; prevent de- 
structive floods; promote and facilitate commerce, 
trade and the postal service; and when so prepared 
and matured, to submit to the Secretary of War a 
full and detailed report of their proceedings and ac- 
tions, and of such plans, with estimates of the cost 
thereof, for the purpose aforesaid, to be by him 
transmitted to Congress; provided that the Com- 
mission shall report in full upon the practicability, 
feasibility and probable cost of the various plans 
known as the jetty system, the levee system and the 
outlet system, as well as upon such others as the}' 
deem necessary. 

Sec. 5. The said commission may, prior to the 
completion of all the suiweys and examinations con- 
templated by this act, prepare and submit to the 
Secretary of AVar plans, specifications and estimates 
of costs for such immediate works as, in the judg- 
ment of said commission, may constitute a part of 
the general system of works herein contemplated, 
to l)e by him transmitted to Congress. 

Sec. 6. The Secretary of War may detail from 
the Engineer Corps of the Army of the United 
States an officer to act as secretary of said commis- 
sion. 

Sec. 1. The Secretary of War is hereby author- 
ized to expend the sum of $175,000, or so much 
thereof as may be necessary, for the payment of the 
salaries herein ])ro\'ide(l for, and of the necessary 
expenses incurred in the completion of such surveys 
as may now be in progress, and of such additional 
surveys, examinations and investigations as may be 
deemed necessary, reporting the plans and esti- 
mates, and the plans, specilications and estimates 
contemplated by this act, as herein provided for; 
and said sum is hereby appropriated for said pur- 
poses out of any money in the treasury not other- 
Avise appropriated. 

Approved June 28, 1S79." 



Note. — This article is from the book on Mississippi River, edited by 
Frank H. Tompkins and published by^the Manufacturers* Record, of Balti- 
more. Known in Congressional Library as "Tompkins on Mississippi River." 



i 



I I 







Map of the United States, showing the Area Drained into the Ilississippi River 




■^^mmirfrTifirvim?, 



I* 



*■ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



225 




R. S. TAYLOR 



226 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS LOW LANDS 



By ROBERT S. TAYLOR, Member of the Mississippi River Commission 



All inquisitive traveler who should undertake to 
pace the margin of the Mississippi Valley would 
begin, we might say, at Decatur, Alabama, and 
would follow thence the zig-zag crest of the Appa- 
lachian rang'e and its northern foot-hills to within 
less than eight miles of Lake Erie. Passing be- 
tween its shore and Lake Chautauqua, he would 
drop southwestward to Crestline, Ohio; thence to 
Fort Wayne, Ind., and onward past Lake Michigan 
so close to Chicago that he would see its smoke 
in the sky as he journeyed. Just missing Green 
Bay, he would take a bite out of Northern Michi- 
gan in order to inclose the Wisconsin River; leave 
Duluth a few miles to- the right; go around the 
groitp of lakes in northern Minnesota headed by 
Itasca; turn abruptly southward a hundred miles 
or so to Brown's Valley between Lakes Traverse 
and Big Stone, where companion drops of the same 
shower part company for Hudson's Bay and the 
Gulf of Mexico. Thence by the northeast corner 
of North Dakota, taking a slice out of British 
America en route, to the Rocky Mountain ravine 
where Milk River bubbles out of its fountain 
spring; thence on the backbone of the continent 
through Leadville, Colo., to Sante Fee, N. M.; 
thence across New Mexico and Texas between 
Denison and Dallas to Shreveport and the Gulf. 
What a wonderful journey tO' think of, and what an 
empire in area, population and power it would 
encompass. 

Geologists tell us that the Mississippi River, so 
far from being the Father of Waters, as the red 
men called it, is one of the Children of Waters, and 
among the youngest of the family at that. Which 
goes to show that to be last is not necessarily to be 
least among rivers any more than among men. 
The great Appalachian backbone lifted its skyline 
high above the sea for centuries of centuries before 
there was any Mississippi River for De Soto to 
discover. Down its western slope the Allegheny, 



Monongahela, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers 
carried the products of erosion into the adjacent 
sea, where they formed a wide fringing shelf of 
deposit. After the lapse of we know not how many 
ages, the earth, in an effort to relieve itself from 
some intolerable strain, lifted up the bottom^ of the 
eastern Pacific and built from it the Rocky Moun- 
tain range. Thus was made the western wall of the 
Mississippi Valley. To fill in the space between 
this wall and the older one on the east. Nature 
taxed all her resources of land-building agencies — ■ 
the frost, the rain, the river, the glacier — decom- 
posing, pulverizing, transporting, and assorting 
the solid stuff of mountain sides; plants and ani- 
mals, living, growing-, dying, rotting, and mingling 
their dead tissues with the deader dust of rocks in 
a soil waiting only the seed of the sower to blossom 
into new forms of vitality for the use of the heir 
of the manor, man, when he should come into his 
inheritance. And so was made the Mississippi 
Valley — a sub-division of the earth's surface, which, 
if we take into account its area, the value and diver- 
sity of its productions, and the thrift, wealth, intelli- 
gence, and progressiveness of its population is 
without its like on the globe. It is a curious cir- 
cumstance that the Star of Empire should follow 
westward the progress of geological land jjuilding; 
and that the geographical area last inade ready for 
occupation by man under favoring conditions 
should become the seat of his latest and highest 
achievements in life, liberty, and government. 

This stupendous process of land extension has 
not only come down to an immediately recent geo- 
logical period, but is in progress yet. At Cairo, 
111., 1,061 miles from the Gulf of Mexico by the 
windings of the river, is gathered together the sur- 
plus rainfall of nearly a million square miles, con- 
centrated by the confluence of the Tennessee, Cum- 
berland, Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers; 
the last two uniting something over 200 miles 



/A 



■ y 






■-!■' 



;■::.- II-: " 




-^^'gjae OKw^' 



228 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - 



above. Here heads the greater Mississippi. The 
last remnant of the Appalachian sea was a narrow 
prolongation of the Gulf of Mexico extending to 
this meeting ground of rivers, into the head of 
which they poured their floods in a group of falls 
or cataracts of sublime grandeur. In the lapse of 
ages the detritus brought down by them filled this 
long frith and transformed it into a sloping, alluvial 
plain having a descent to^ the Gulf in its 700 miles 
of length of about 300 feet, and embracing an area 
of 29,790 square miles subject to overflow in its 
natural state during great floods. 

It is probable that in past ag'cs climatic and geo- 
logical conditions combined to make this process 
of transportation and deposit far more active and 
effective than at present. But it is still going on 
wherever man has not interfered with it. At the 
mouth of the river the land is growing outward into 
the sea. The region south of Red River and west 
of the Mississippi, known as the Atchafalaya Basin, 
is in iMgp p.%rt Jn an unfinished stage of develop- 
ment^*' Jt-.^Fge, areas in that basin are barely above 
the sea level. *",'_ , ' 

While,.the Mississippi is a bold, bad river in many 
of its ways, there is much tO' be said to its credit. 
It and its tributaries furnished the highways by 
which civilization, penetrated the heart of the North 
American continent. The length and ramification 
of the navigable waterways which they afford is 
astonishing. 'Starting from Cairo steamboats can 
ascend, and. do in fact navigate the Tennessee 349 
miles to Floren.ce, Tenn.; the Cumberland 197 
miles toClarksyille, Tenn.; the Ohio 967 miles to 
Pittsbur^jT!,!,and. the Monongahela and Allegheny 
still furti}er;';t;l^ Mississippi 929 miles to St. Paul, 
and the ''Missouri to the foot hills of the Rocky 
Mountains. ' The main stem below is 1,061 miles 
in length, and, its tributaries, St. Francis, White, 
Yazoo, Arkansas, and Red, are all navigable, some 
of them for long- distances. The total navigable 
length of all the rivers of the valley has been com- 
puted at over 15,000 miles. Except for these 
natural highways, and the genius of Fulton, who 
built his steamboat in the very nick of time to fit 
his country's need of it, this vast region would have 
remained in the possession of the red men and their 
wild companions for many years longer than they 
were able to keep it. 

When we consider what the occupation of that 
valley meant, the homes that were planted there, 
the states that were founded, the tremendous im- 



pulse that was given to the growth of free institu- 
tions among men by its marvelous development, we 
must admit that with all its faults the Mississippi 
has rendered more signal service to mankind than 
any other river that flows. 

Those were great days: — those days of the early 
settlement of the eastern half of the upper Missis- 
sippi Valley. To go home-seeking into the wilder- 
ness, to float down noble streams on voyages of 
discovery, to take possession of the soil as the orig- 
inal occupant was an experience not to be repeated 
in all its inspiring circumstances. The world has 
no more such lands awaiting subjugation by civil- 
ized man as those which the pioneer found in Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The 
later settlement of the western A¥est of Iowa, 
Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, when emigrants 
traveled by rail and sent telegrams back announc- 
ing their arrival, was swifter in its progress, but it 
wanted the romance, the poetry, the charm of the 
real pioneer days. 

The divine command to man to subdue the earth 
grows to mean more and more as the centuries pass 
by. It seemed to suffice at first to transform for- 
ests into cultivated fields. Then roads had to be 
made, ships built, and steam and electricity broken 
to harness. In some departments this subjugation 
of the earth and its forces appears to have reached 
a degree of completeness. But in one we seem to 
be ever approaching and never reaching that point. 
It is in the highways of the water; their lines, chan- 
nels, and terminals. 

The seas, the lakes, and the rivers are the oldest 
of all the paths of commerce, and still the best, and 
yet never quite adequate to the demands upon 
them. A ship can sail round the world to find her 
voyage stopped by a bar in sight of the quay to 
which her cargo is consig'ned. A steamboat would 
have a thousand miles of unbroken navigation, but 
for a few piles of sand a few inches too high to let 
her keel pass over. To deepen and improve river 
channels and open the doors of harbors are the 
ever present, e\'er pressing, never completed prob- 
lems of modern commercial development. 

One of the most notable achievements in that 
field was the opening of the month of the Missis- 
sippi by the South Pass Jetties. The historj' of this 
great work is not as familiar to the American peo- 
ple as it deseiwes to be. Twenty 3rears of unob- 
structed access tO' New Orleans Harbor has effaced 
from our remembrance the davs when the largest 



Past— Present— Prospective 



229 



ships never attempted to reach it, and when fleets 
of the smaller ones that dared try it used to wait 
outside the bar for days for a favorable tide. The 
story of the undertaking, the incredulity with 
which the proposal was at first received, the oppo- 
sition which it encountered, the halting", hesitating 
encouragement which it received from the govern- 
ment, the indomitable courage and perseverance of 
its projector, the marvelous persuasiveness by 
which he enlisted capitalists in a work in which the 
contractor took all the hazards of its results, the 
skill with which he executed it, and the immediate- 
ness and completeness of its success, form a chapter 
of intensest interest in the history of the United 
States. The Hall of Fame of American engineers 
will be incomplete without a niche for James B. 
Eads. 

The principal applied in that improvement was 
simplicity simplified. One of the river's five diverg- 
ing mouths, or "passes," as they are termed, a small 
one, carrying only about eleven per cent of the 
total discharge of the river, was selected. Walls 
■O'i brush mattresses, cribs, stone, and concrete were 
built on each side, from the deep water above the 
bar that crossed it at the line where river and ocean 
met and the river threw down its sand, across the 
bar to deep water on the sea side. These concen- 
trated the flow of water within defined lines and 
■extended it farther into the gulf. To increase the 
velocity of that flow thin brush mattresses were 
placed across the other passes. These were sufH- 
cient to increase the velocity of the current through 
South Pass only slightly, but enough, with some 
aid from a dredge, to wash out the obstructing bar, 
and give free entrance for the largest ships. From 
the Head of the Passes- — that is, from the point 
where the branching passes diverge — to New Or- 
leans, the river channel is deep enough for the 
largest ships. And so' the world's commerce found 
access to New Orleans Harbor. 

The fluid which flows down the Mississippi is 
•called water by courtesy; it is really a mixture of 
water and earth: — enough earth to give it the color 
of mud, but not quite enough to give it the con- 
sistency of soup. A tumblerful of it, after standing 
a few hours, will precipitate a teaspoonful of set- 
tlings of the fluidity of hotel cream. The quantity 
of earthy matter thus transported is enormous. It 
is equal in bulk to one part in 2,900, and in weight 
to one in 1,500 of the total average volume flowing. 
At an active rising stage the sediment carried past 



a given point is equal to a thousand tons a minute. 
If at such a point a screen could be placed across 
the river that woidd filter the water perfectly with- 
out checking its flow, there would be enough earth 
accumulated to make a wall across the entire chan- 
nel a foot thick in eight minutes. If the total 
amount which is in suspension and course of trans- 
portation at a given moment between Cairo and 
the Gulf at ordinary stage could be gathered to- 
gether as dry land by a flash of lightning, it would 
weigh over sixteen million tons and would cover 
six thousand acres of land a foot deep with prime 
garden soil. 

This carrying capacity of the river depends upon 
the velocity of its flow. AVhen it is loaded to its 
maximum at a given velocity any diminution of 
that velocity compels it tO' drop part of its load. 
And it drops first, of course, tile heavier particles, 
such as coarse grains of sand, carrying the lighter 
particles further on. 

As has been stated, the alluvial valley of the 
Mississippi from Cairo to the Gulf is an old frith 
filled up by the deposits of the rivers which empty 
into it. This valley varies from twenty to forty 
miles in width, and the river descends it by a path 
which touches the blufl: on either side only at a few 
places, and then only for a few thousand feet, and 
is so full of crooks and turns that a steamboat will 
box the compass several times round in going 
down it once. 

This tortuous channel is entirely of the river's 
owm making; sides, bottom, width, depth, direc- 
tion^ — everything. Every spoonful of earth in the 
valley was brought to the place where it is by flow- 
ing water. It stopped at the place wdiere it is 
because the velocity of water was insufficient to 
carry it further. Every square foot of the face of 
every vertical bank on the river is exposed as it is, 
because the river has cut away the earth in front of 
it just that far. If the velocity of the water had 
been greater, the erosion and retreat of the bank 
would have been greater; if less, less. Or if the 
resistance of the bank had been greater, the erosion 
would have been less, and vice versa. In short, 
every feature and circumstance appertaining to the 
river is a resultant of opposing forces, but repre- 
sents some degree or kind of equilibrium between 
such forces. 

If the bed of the Mississippi River could be 
emptied of its contents so as to expose its bottom 
dry and bare, the appearance presented would be 



230 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



surprising to- most of us. Instead of a compara- 
tively level channel floor there would be found a 
succession of great sand hills and intervening de- 
pressions. Passing through one of these depres- 
sions, the observer would find himself, it might be, 
a hundred and fifty feet below the banks on either 
side. Within a few thousand feet we would encoun- 
ter a sand hill stretching across the channel, so 
steep that you could scarcely drive a horse up its 
declivity, and perhaps a hundred feet high. Hav- 
ing crossed the top of this he would descend into 
another basin, then climb another hill, and so on. 
When the channel is filled with water the crests of 
these elevations approach the surface and consti- 
tute the bars which obstruct navigation. 

The action by which these bars are produced is 
somewhat as follows: At flood stage a volume of 
water several times as great as that which goes 
over Niagara Falls drops 323 feet in flowing from 
CairO' to the Gulf. Its path is a series of alternately 
reversed bends. In these bends it hugs the concave 
bank, flowing with high velocity and scouring out 
of the bottom of the channel and from the face of 
the bank a greater or less, and sometimes a very 
great quantity, of sand and loam. At the foot of 
each bend the main flow crosses to the other side 
of the channel and follows the concave bank on 
that side; and sO' back and forth from bend to 
bend. The place in the channel where the flow 
thus crosses from the concave face at one bend to 
the concave face of the next bend below, is called, 
in the vernacular of the river, a "crossing." 

As the water passes over the crossing the velocity 
of its flow falls oft' a little, to be renewed again in 
the bend below. This slackening need be very 
little to cause the flowing water to let fall part of 
the lead of sand and loam which it has taken up 
in the bend above, the larger and heavier grains of 
sand going to the bottom first. And thus are built 
up the bars between the bends. 

There is a bar of some dimensions between every 
two bends on the river. But most of them never 
rise to a height to present any obstruction to navi- 
gation. Over some of them, however, the water 
becomes very shallow at extreme low stages, 
spreading out in a broad sheet, it may be a m.ile 
wide and less than six feet deep. Of such obstruct- 
ing bars about forty have been known below Cairo. 

For about eight months in each year the volume 
of water passing down the river is sufficient tO' sub- 
merge all the bars deeply enough for all the require- 



ments of navigation. But unfortunately, the lowest 
water usually comes in the late fall and early winter, 
when there is greatest need of a good channel. It 
is then that the grain and cotton crops of the valley 
are ready for market and ample and cheap means 
of transportation are of the highest value to the 
people. 

It will be seen from> this description that the 
problem presented is to cut off the tops of the bars, 
or sand hills, which the river builds between the 
pools of its own bends. The quantity to be taken 
off is not great compared with the whole height of 
the bar — say fifteen feet from the top of a sand hill 
a hundred feet high in order to secure a channel 
twenty feet deep. 

These obstructions are found for the most part 
in groups of from three or four tO' eight or ten 
embraced within a reach of twenty to forty miles in 
length. The first of these groups is in the vicinity 
of New Madrid, Mo., and the next about a hundred 
miles above Memphis. Between its bad places the 
river will show a good channel at all stages for long 
distances. Careful comparative study of the good 
and the bad reaches shows that an obstructing bar 
is usually the result of one or the other of two com- 
binations; a series of rapidly caving bends with 
broad bars at the crossings between them, or the 
subdivision of the low water channel into a num- 
ber of relatively small ones. Where the lew-water 
discharge crosses the bar by a single channel of 
three thousand feet or less in width there is always 
ample depth for navigation. 

As soon as the success of the South Pass Jetties 
was demonstrated the question was asked, Why 
not apply the same principle tO' the removal of the 
bars in the channel? Mr. Eads was of the opinion 
that it could be done, and engineers generally 
agreed with him as tO' the applicability of the prin- 
ciple. The question of cost was in doubt. No 
data existed on which to base a final estimate. 

At the same time another great interest demand- 
ed attention — the protection of the alluvial lands 
below Cairo from overflow. Prior to that time two 
opposite theories in regard to the control of floods 
in the Mississippi had found supporters. One was 
known as the outlet theory, the substance of which 
was, that the remedy for overflow was tO' give the 
river more channels to the sea by making outlets 
in its banks where it was possible to do so in a way 
to take oft' part of a flood and carry it to the Gulf 
by an independent path. The other theory, which 



Past— Present— Prospective 



231 



may be called the concentration theory, had for its 
main principle the proposition that the scouring 
power of the river increases with its discharg-e and, 
vice versa, that a given volume of water flowing in 
two channels has less capacity for scour than if 
flowing in one channel, and that the best security 
against floods is to keep the main channel open by 
concentrating the whole discharge of the river in 
it at all stages. 

It followed from this view that the concentration 
of the water at flood stages in the main channel by 
means of levees would not only protect the alluvial 
lands from overflow^, but would tend to improve 
the channel for navig-ation by increasing the scour- 
ing" power of the current. 

At this juncture, by an act of Congress approved 
1879, the Mississippi River Commission was cre- 
ated. In its first report it set forth a plan for re- 
moving" the bars from the river by means identical 
in principle with the South Pass Jetties, to be sup- 
plemented bjr levees which would confine all ordin- 
ary floods within the channel. Mr. Eads was a 
member of the commission and the plan of im- 
provement adopted was in accord with his views, 
Ijut not without some dissent by other members. 
A provisional estimate \vas made of the cost of the 
channel work (b)' which is sig'uified the engineer- 
ing" constructions placed within the banks, as dis- 
tinguished from the levees) at $33,000,000. In this 
estimate the cost of bank revetment (by which is 
meant the protection of mattresses and riprap, or 
spur dikes, applied to the bank tO' prevent caving) 
was estimated at twelve dollars per running foot. 

While the construction of the engineering de- 
vices known as revetments and contraction works 
are familiar to those who have followed the course 
of the work done on the lower river they may not 
be known tO' others who' will read these pages, and 
a brief description of them will not be out of place. 

The object sought, it is to be noted, was to con- 
centrate the current over the bars within a width 
of about three thousand feet. This required two 
kinds of work. First, a contraction of the channel 
where its width was excessive, and, second, the pre- 
vention of excessive caving in the bends whence 
the material of the bars is obtained. There is at all 
times, and in all parts of the river, a large quantity 
of sediment in suspension ready to be deposited 
whenever the velocity of the current falls below 
the point necessary for its transportation. Of this 
the solid particles of sand are the coarsest and heav- 



iest. Much of this, indeed, is not carried at all, but 
rolled along" the iDottom. So that, as a rule, the 
greater part of the material of the bars comes Irom 
the bends immediately, or only a little way above 
them. Hence, the stopping of caving in the bends 
cuts oft' in large measure the supply of material for 
the building" of bars. 

There is nO' foundation in the bed of the Missis- 
sippi Ri\'er upon which tO' build structures of stone 
or timber; and if there were, the cost of them would 
be prohibitory. So resort is had for material to the 
willows which cover thickly the islands and low 
banks of the river! — the hair of the same dog, as 
one might sa3^ 

The method of using these for the contraction 
of the channel is as follows. Above the space which 
it is desired to fill in order to reduce the width of 
the channel, rows of piles are driven and between 
these are interwo\'en long, slender willows like 
basket work, so as to make a sort of open screen 
through which the water can pass freely, but which 
checks sensibly the velocity of its flow. These 
structures are known as "permeable dikes." As 
the water approaches them it Ijrings a load of sedi- 
ment as great as its velocity will support. The 
reduction of its velocit}^ in passing through them 
diminishes its silt-carrying power and causes it to 
deposit ]3art of its load in the space below. The 
results attained by these simple structures are 
sometimes truly wonderful. In some instances 
thousands of acres have Ijeen filled several feet in 
depth in a single season.' — the material all picked 
up and laid down by the water itself, a speck at a 
time. 

For the prevention of caving in the bends, two 
forms of protection are employed. The one most 
used is the woven mattress. The manner of its 
construction may be described as follows: A strong 
barge (or two or more of them placed end to end) 
is moored in the stream with one end resting on 
the shore and the other extending into the stream 
at a right angle with the bank. The down stream 
side of this barge slopes toward the water like the 
roof of a house, and has at intervals of a few feet 
elevated tracks or ways which lead down tO' the 
water like the hand-rail of a stairway. Above these 
inclined ways is a broad horizontal deck on which 
are mounted some simple mechanical devices for 
weaving together the wire, slender poles, and 
brush, of which the mattress is made, with room for 
a large gang of men to work. As the weaving 



232 



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PROTECTION OF MEMPHIS HARBOR 



TWO SCENES OF REVETMENT WORK 
AT HOPEFIELD POINT 



Past— Present— Prospective 



233 



progresses the mattress slides down the ways into 
the water and floats on the surface. It forms a 
compact, strong, and j^et flexible structure, a foot 
or more in thickness, and as it gradually extends 
its length down stream the workmen walk upon it 
with freedom and safety. A usual size of a com- 
pleted mattress is 300 feet in width by 1,000 to 
1,200 feet in length — without doubt the largest 
textile fabric ever made in the world. The art of 
building- and using such mattresses is not new, but 
they have never been made of such size and 
strength anywhere else as on the lower Mississippi. 
In the great sweep of its bends the revetments 
required are often several miles in length. 

When the weaving is complete the mattress is 
loaded with stone in large fragments scattered 
evenly over its surface in just sufficient Cjuantity to 
overcome its flotation, and it slowly sinks to the 
bottom. Its outer edge is securely held at the low- 
water margin of the stream. Inside that line it 
follows the curvature of the submerged bank to^ the 
extent of its width, the intent being that it shall 
reach the foot of the subaqueous slope. 

That portion of the bank above low water inark 
is graded to a fiat slope by hydraulic graders of 
great size and power and the surface of the slope 
covered with a riprap of stone. The entire combin- 
ation of mattress, grading, and riprap is comprised 
under the general term "revetment." 

The other form of bank protection employed is 
known as "spur dike revetment," and consists of 
short spurs projecting from the bank at intei-vals 
of a few hundred feet. These spurs are built up of 
alternate layers of brush work and stone, beginning 
with a broad mattress at the bottom and tapering 
to the top in pyramidal form. The brush work 
employed is substantially like that found in the 
mattresses just described, except that larger poles 
are used and greater strength and thickness are 
required. The effect of the spurs is to break the 
force of the attack upon the bank at intervals so 
short that after wearing back a certain distance 
between them its caving ceases. 

These structures — the permeable dikes, or con- 
traction works for bank building, and revetments, 
whether of mattresses or spurs, for bank protec- 
tion, are all comprised in the general term "channel 
works," and constitute one main division of the 
■work done under the supervision of the Mississippi 
River Commission. The other main division con- 
sists of levees to prevent overflow. A Mississippi 



River levee is no more than a bank of earth not 
unlike a railroad embankment except that it is 
broader at its base and flatter in its slopes. The 
standard form, as at present built, has a crown, or 
top surface eight feet wide with side slopes of three 
feet horizontally to one foot vertically. If it ex- 
ceeds eight feet in height the most perfect con- 
struction includes a banquette, or annex on the 
inner side in the form of a terrace coming to- within 
eight feet of the top and extending- inwardly with 
d very flat slope for twenty feet or more. 

These embankments do not follow closely the 
curves of the river, but are located at distances 
from the bank varying from a hundred or a few 
hundred feet to several miles, the object being to 
economize in length and tO' keep away as far as 
possible from rapidly caving banks. 

The construction of levees to prevent overflow 
began with the Spanish settlements at New Orleans 
a hundred and eighty years ago. From thence 
they advanced up stream, as the country was occu- 
pied, until, at the outbreak of the civil war, they 
were substantially continuous as far up as the 
mouth of the Arkansas River on the west side, 
and Memphis on the east side. During the war 
the leveees suffered great destruction, and it was 
some years after its close that the work of their 
i^estoration was taken up with any effectiveness. 

The first appropriation made by Congress for 
work under the Mississippi River Commission was 
$1,000,000 by act of March 3, 1881. It was ex- 
pended in the construction of plant for use in the 
channel works, and in beginning those w'orks in 
twoselected places on the river where the worst bars 
were found — one at what is known as Plum Point 
Reach, about seventy-five miles above Memphis, 
and the other at Lake Providence Reach, a similar 
distance above Vicksburg. The second appropria- 
tion was of $4,123,000 by act of August 2, 1882. 
From that appropriation the sum of $1,300,000 was 
allotted tO' the repair and maintenance of levees, 
and the remainder to channel works, and expenses 
incident thereto', and harbor improvements. In 
the expenditure of the sum allotted to levees the 
Commission began at once a policy which has been 
followed ever since, of co-operation with the state 
and local authorities interested in the work. Pref- 
erence was given, other considerations being 
equal, to those localities where the people were 
ready to contribute most tO' the work from their 
own resources. 



234 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



The time was opportune for this co-operation. 
The people of the lower valley had been exerting 
themselves to the utmost for a number of years to 
restore the levee system to its ante bellum condi- 
tions, and had accomplished much in that direction. 
The extraordinai^y flood of 1882^ — the greatest 
known in modern years, had all but destroyed the 
entire system. The people were exhausted, pros- 
trate and disheartened. The appearance in ihe tield 
of the United States Government with its proffer 
of aid awakened hope in their hearts and stimulated 
them to renewed effort. The most efficient local 
organizations were in Louisiana and Mississippi, 
and there the response of the people to the in- 
vitation of the Government was immediate and 
vigorous. 

In the earlier years of the work of the Commis- 
sion levees were treated as an adjunct, merely, of 
the channel works. It was considered that they 
contributed to the deepening and improvement of 
the navigable channel by concentrating- the flood 
discharge within defined lines and so increasing its 
scouring power. It was partly in order to obtain 
the benefit of this concentration of flow in those 
parts of the river where the channel works were 
inaugurated, and partly because there was also in 
those parts the greatest reacflness and ability to 
co-operate in the work by the riparian communi- 
ties, that the largest expenditures in the early days 
were along the Mississippi and upper Louisiana 
fronts. 

The importance of the work which was then 
begun, and which has been continued for eighteen 
vears will not be realized without an adec|uate con- 
ception of the conditions presented, the interests 
at stake and the results which have been accom- 
plished. There are few such regions in the world 
as the twentv-nine thousand square miles compris- 
ing the alluvial valley of the Mississippi. Its area 
is equal to two and a half times that of the kingdom 
of New Netherlands, which contams a population 
of five millions of people. It extends through eight 
degrees of latitude. Its northern portion produces 
corn, wheat and oats, its central portion cotton, 
and its southern portion sugar and rice — all in 
crops yielding rich returns to the planter. 

This wonderful valley is the cream jug of the 
continent. Nature knows not how to compound 
a richer soil. It can ^^o• more lie idle than the sea 
can keep still. Every square foot of it riots in veg- 
etable life. In its natural state, before its invasion 



by civilized man, lofty forests, interminable in ex- 
tent; climbing, crawling, wandering vines; thick 
undergrowth, cane brakes and tall gi^asses fought 
for room in its earth and air. Its floods came down 
loaded with skimmings from the great watershed 
above. Overtopping- its banks, the enriched water 
spread far and wide over the alluvial area, so 
obstructed in its flow by the dense growth covering 
the land that its slackened velocity compelled it to 
let fall its load of sediment as it went. Thus the 
floods built up the valley year by year in layers of 
fatness to- li^'e again in incalculable crops of grain, 
fruits and fibers. Such an alluvial empire, such a 
field of opportunity for enterprise and industry, 
such resources of supply for human enjoyment can 
not be abandoned to> floods and uselessness if it is 
possible to save it. The world can not spare it. 

It can be saved and made to blossom as a garden 
over its whole vast expanse b}' levees of such pro- 
portions as to confine its floods within its channel, 
and in no other way. All schemes for reducing 
overflow by outlets are futile and visionary. They 
only weaken the carrying- power of the water and 
result in increased deposits and higher flood levels 
in the end. 

There have been plans for alleviating floods by 
impounding the surplus rainfall in reservoirs at the 
head waters of the upper Mississippi and the Mis- 
souri. But they are unavailable because the over- 
flowing floods do' not come from those parts of the 
valley. They come from storms that originate in 
the southwest and cross the Ozark mountains into 
the valleys of the Tennessee, Cumberland and Ohio. 
It is on the steep declivities of the Appalachian 
range, and in the thickly populated, highly culti- 
vated states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indi- 
ana and Illinois that the reservoirs would have to 
be located. As an engineering problem simply, the 
thing is not impossible; as a practical solution of 
the question it is impossible on account of the ex- 
pense and the destruction of vested rig-hts which 
it would involve. 

The latest and most nearly feasible of all sug- 
gestions of this sort is to use the St. Francis Basin 
as a flood reservoir. This has in it enough of im- 
aginable possibility to call for the specific study 
which can be given tO' it only by means of a detailed 
survey for the purpose, which will doubtless be 
made. In advance of that it must be said that. the 
danger of impounding such a sea within earthen 
embankments high above the heads and homes of 



Past— Present— Prospective 



235 




^^ru'sewikiiNg^ii^iMi^ i .^ 




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CONCRETE WORKS AT BONDURANT, LA. 




KEMPE LEVEE 1899 



236 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



millions of people, and the proljable insufficiency in 
storage capacity of the deepest reservoirs that 
could be made in that basin, will make it only a 
little less impracticable than the other reservoir 
schemes which have been discussed. The co-opera- 
tion Ijeg'un eighteen years ago between the United 
States and the state and local authorities in the 
building, and maintenance of levees has continued 
to this time. It has been a great partnership in 
a great work, which has borne fruit in great re- 
sults. The levees now extend in nearly complete 
lines from the Forts, seventy miles below New 
Orleans, to the high ridge near New Madrid, 
seventy miles below Cairo, comprising in all fifteen 
hundred miles of embankment. There are a fev/ 
gaps to be filled, not exceeding fifty miles in the 
aggregate, and sixty-five miles yet to liuild above 
New Madrid, to cover all the great basins. A small 
area above Reelfoot Lake should be closed, and 
there are some fragnientai-y areas, on the east side 
below Vicksburg, scarcely worth the cost of levee 
protection, which still remain open; and nearly all 
the lines want additional height and strength to 
hold the extraordinary floods which sometimes oc- 
cur. They are adequate now tO' restrain ordinary 
high water, and have done so already. 

The flood of 189Y was of extraordinary height 
and duration — in many parts of the river the high- 
est ever known. It made a number of crevasses 
and inundated about one-third of the area subject 
to overflow; but less than one-fourth of the culti- 
vated lands. Nevertheless it was a demonstration 
of the possibility of effective protection by levees. 
Out of 1,377 miles of embankment in place, only 
8.7 miles, or .63 of one per cent of the whole, was 
destroyed. Nearly all the crevasses were in old, 
weak lines, or lines so far below grade that the 
water overtopped them. Below Red River the 
entire discharge passed down to the sea without a 
crevasse except one of insignificant dimensions, 
which was closed in short time. Taken as a whole, 
the record of the flood showed that, barring acci- 
dents, if the levee system had been complete in ac- 
cordance with the standards now in force it would 
have held the water. As it was, the saving of 
property by the levees during that single flood was 
equal to the cost of the levees, as they then stood. 
The flood of 1898 reached a height of 49.8 feet at 
Cairo, against 51.6 in 1897, and at several points 
below reached a higher stage than that of 1897, 
or any previous year. But it flowed to the Gulf 



without a break — the first time in history that such 
a thing has occurred. Since then there has been 
no overflowing flood. 

The total expenditure on the levees since 1882 
has been approximately $35,000,000. Of this the 
United States has supplied $15,000,000, and the 
people of the valley $20,000,000, as nearly as can 
be estimated. As the work has progressed, and the 
people have come tO' have more and more con- 
fidence in the stability and effectiveness of the 
levees, the alluvial valley has undergone a trans- 
formation. Population has increased — in some 
parts doubled within ten years, thriving towns 
have grown up, railroads have been built, banks 
opened, new industries established, new plantations 
cleared, and a great impetus given to life and busi- 
ness in all departments. It is entirely within 
bounds to say that the total value of property in 
the valley has doubled since 1SS2. 

A feature of special interest in this connection 
is the opportunity which the reclamation of the 
alluvial valley oft'ers to the negro to better his con- 
dition. One-half or more of its entire area is suit- 
able for cultivation of cotton. A bale per acre of 
ginned cotton, weighing five hundred pounds, is 
the standard yield — ^worth from thirty to fifty dol- 
lars according to the ups and downs of the market. 
In addition to this the seed has a value of five or 
six dollars per acre. Its cultivation is as simple as 
that of corn. The picking season lasts three or 
four months, so that no extra help is required in 
harvesting it. One man, with the aid of his wife 
and children, can raise and gather the crop' from ten 
acres. It is an ideal industry for the negro. 

The restraint of the floods has not only af- 
forded new security to the lands formerly culti- 
vated, but has made available as much, or twice as 
much more in area which was never before util- 
ized. The surface of the valley is not an even 
plain, but a succession of low ridges along the 
banks' of the river and the interior bayous, with 
broad areas of wooded swamp land between. In 
former years no attempt was made to cultivate 
anything but the ridg'es. Since the completion of 
the levees the lower lands are rapidly coming into 
use, first for the timber with which they are cov- 
ered, and then for cultivation. 

The timber industry has assumed great propor- 
tions. The supply is enormous. Without rail- 
roads it was inaccessible away from the banks of 
streams. Without protection from floods railroads 



Past— Present— Prospective 



237 



were impracticalDle. They are now being rapidly 
extended over all the alluvial district. For the 
moment the timber industry rivals cotton in its 
importance. After it follow cotton and com. 
When the merchantable timber has been removed 
the clearing of the land is an easy task, and what 
were formerly hopeless swamps become the most 
productive fields. 

The negi'o is not seizing this golden opportunity 
as the white pioneer of the Northwest would have 
seized it, but he is not wholly neglecting it. In 
considerable and increasing numbers they are buy- 
ing land and becoming independent cultivators. 
Those who do so are steadily advancing in thrift, 
intelligence, and the qualities of good citizenship. 
Nowhere else in the South are as favorable oppor- 
tunities offered to the black man as in the re- 
claimed Mississippi lowlands, and nowhere else is 
he doing as much for his own uplifting-. 

The history ol the channel works has been one of 
varying experiences. It was soon seen that the 
work undertaken Avas more difficult than that done 
at the jetties. At the mouth of the river only one 
bar rec|uired removal. But the interests mvolved 
were so important that the Government could well 
afford to pay five million dollars for a channel 
through that one bar. The water over it was sub- 
ject to little rise and fall and its cirrent was gentle 
and uniform. In the river above there were to be 
encountered stages of water varying forty feet and 
more between extremes, and currents of hig-h ve- 
locity and shifting directions. The bank ranged in 
compositio'n from clear sand to "buckshot" as 
tough as the Northern blue clay. Contraction 
works and bank revetments had been built before, 
but never on such a scale and in such situations. 
The work was an experiment from the start. 

It developed at once that the bank revetments 
were the most important and the most difficult 
part of it. The first ones failed. Better ones were 
made. It was a problem to learn how to make 
them and get them into place with one edge at the 
water line and the other sixty feet under water in 
a current boiling and swirling round a bend. It 
called for invention, courage, skill, and persever- 
ance. But as occasion demanded the art grew. 
And the mattresses grew. From structures a 
liundred and twenty-five feet wide and three or four 
hundred feet long that went out, they developed 
to structures three hundred feet wide and twelve 
hundred feet long, that stayed where they were put. 



The standard mattress of to-day is an evolution. 
It is a piece of work that no one in the world 
could have made and laid down fifteen years ago. 
Other descriptions of it with illustrations will be 
found in this book. 

When, after years of study and experiment, it 
was demonstrated that a caving bank can be held, 
it was also demonstrated that the cost of doing it 
will reach thirty dollars per running foot. This 
was two and a half times the original estimate. 
It became apparent, also, that the time which 
would be required to remove by these permanent 
improvements the forty bars that impeded com- 
merce between Cairo and New Orleans would be 
long-er than impatient commerce could afford to 
wait. 

Happily, just as this discouraging condition had 
forced itself on the minds of those in charge of the 
work an unexpected alternative presented itself. 
The hydraulic dredge appeared among the gigantic 
machines born of modern invention. Why not try 
it on the Mississippi bars? Once cut across the 
crest, would not the current keep its path open? 
It must be done quickly, else the cut would fill at 
one end before it would be open at the other. 
How quickly could it be done? A dredge was built 
and tried. The results were encouraging, but in- 
conclusive. It was determined to press the ex- 
periment by building at once a more powerful 
machine than any previously known. 

In 1895-6 Mr. Lindon W. Bates, of Chicago, 
built for the Commission a dredg'e having more 
than twice the capacity of any other dredge then 
existing. On its trial tests it handled in an average 
of ten tests the astonishing quantity of 4,921 cubic 
yards of sand per hour, taking it up from the bar 
and transporting it through floating pipes to a dis- 
tance of one thousand feet. While this was far 
above its subsequent performance in actual work 
it was an invaluable demonstration of possibilities, 
and settled the question of the feasibility of cut- 
ting throug"h a bar so quickly that the current can 
establish itself in the path thus offered to< it before 
the drifting sand will fill it up. 

This dredge — the Beta, was a twin machine, 
being, in reality, two independent dredges mounted 
on one hull. For reasons of convenience in hand- 
ling no more like it in that respect have been built; 
but others similar in general design, with improve- 
ments suggested by experience, have been added 
until a fleet of eight powerful hydraulic dredges are 



238 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Rivek: 






FORTIFYING LEVEES WITH SACKS OF EARTH, IN CASES OF SLOUGHING OR WEAKENING 



Past— Present— Prospective 



239 



now employed at low water in the channel below 
Cairo. The purely experimental stage of the work 
has been past, and its probable success has been 
assured. By these Titanic machines paths are 
opened across the bars as the river falls tO' which 
it takes kindly and in which it keeps its course 
throughout the season with ample depth for navi- 
gation. 

These dredge channels are not relied on for 
more than a single season's service, although in 
some places considerable traces of them survive 
the following flood. There is reason to believe that 
as the very nice art of locating them in harmony 
with the natural tendency of the river is perfected 
bv experience they will gradually become more 
and more permanent. This result will be pro- 
moted where conditions are changeable by chan- 
nel works suitable to preserve general stability. 
With these more or less temporary channels to 
meet its immediate needs commerce awaits the 
slower process of the permanent improvements to 
follow. 



As a whole, the work of improvement in the al- 
luvial valley of the Mississippi inaugurated twenty 
years ago has demonstrated its utility in results 
already gained and far greater ones in reasonable 
prospect. It furnishes a vast object lesson in the 
value of union and co-operation. It is not probable 
that the dwellers on the banks below Cairo could 
ever have enlisted the aid of the United States in 
reclaiming their lands through their own exertions; 
and without that aid they could not have accom- 
plished the work. It is also not probable that the 
com.mercial interests of the upper valley, acting 
alone, could have secured the appropriations neces- 
sary for the improvement of the lower river as a 
highway of navigation. But when all the Missis- 
sippi states, from Minnesota tO' Louisiana, pull to- 
p-ether, Congfress heeds. Nor is it for themselves 
alone that these great states join in heart and hand 
and effort. It is for all the people of the whole 
Union that the Mississippi flows and its lowlands 
blossom and their harvests ripen. 




STEAMER MISSISSIPPI 



240 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





No. 1 



No. 2 




No. 3 



NOS. 1 AND 3— LEVEES RAISED BY MEANS OF SACKED EARTH TO KEEP PACE WITH THE RISE IN THE RIVER 

NO. 2-STRENGTHENING LEVEES WITH SACKS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



241 




242 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - 




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Past— Present— Prospective 



243 




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O 
H 



P 

o 
I 



244 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



SOME OF THE PROMINENT MEMBERS AND EX-MEMBERS 



OF THE 



United States Senate and 
House of Representatives 

FROM THE STATES AND DISTRICTS EMBRACING THE 

RIPARIAN LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



NOTE. — Portraits of Senators Vest of Missouri and 
Caffery of Louisana are in the Group Representing 
the Senate Committee on Commerce .'. .'. .". .'. .". 





N. C. BLANCHARD 

Justice of Louisiana Supreme Court, Ex-Representative and 

Ex-Senator from Louisiana 



T. C. CATCHINGS 

Representative from Mississippi 



Past— Present— Prospective 



245 





THE LATE EDWARD GARY WALTHALL 
Senator from Mississippi 



EDWARD DOUGLAS WHITE 

Associate Justice U. S. Supreme Court 
Formerly U. S. Senator from Louisiana 




•S^:-.--,. 




THE LATE RANDELL LEE GIBSON 
Representative and Senator from Louisiana 



THE LATE JAMES Z. GEORGE 
Senator from Mississippi 



246 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 





THE LATE EDWARD WHITE ROBERTSON 
Representative from Louisiana 



BENJAMIN F. JONAS 
Ex-Ssnator from Louisiana 




^V 




THE LATE JAMES PHELAN 
Representative from Tennessee 



MATT. D. LAGAN 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



247 





THE LATE EDWARD J. GAY 
Representative from Louisiana 



H. DUDLEY COLEMAN 
Ex-Representative frotn Louisiana 





ANDRE'W PRICE 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



SAMUEL M. ROBERTSON 
Representative from Louisiana 



248 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 




t^Ss««8^«,^ 




JOSEPH W. BAILEY 

Representative from Texas 

Democratic Leader in 55th Congress 

Will be elected to U. S. Senate from Texas 



WILLIAM B. BATE 

Senator from Tennessee 







JAMES K. JONES 
Senator from Arkansas 



EDWARD T. LEWIS 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



249 





JOSIAH PATTERSON 
Ex-Representative from Tennessee 



THOMAS B. TURLEY 
Senator from Tennessee 





THE LATE WILLIAM H. CATE 
Representative from Arkansas 



JAMES D. RICHARDSON 

Representative from Tennessee 
Democratic Leader in the House of Representatives 



250 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





RICE A. PIERCE 
Representative from Tennessee 



WILLIAM V. SULLIVAN 
Sen-Ttor from Mississippi 





SAMUEL DOUGLASS M'ENERY 
Senator from Louisiana 



HERNANDO DESOTO AlONEY 
Senator from Mississippi 



Past— Present— Prospective 



251 





WILLIAM D. VANDIVER 
Representative from Missouri 



GEORGE W. SMITH 
Representative from Illinois 





PHILIP D. M'CULLOCH 
Representative from Arkansas 



THOAtAS C M'RAE 
Representative from Arkansas 



252 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




I 



r^ 





EDWARD W. CARMACK 

Representative from Tennessee 
Will be Elected to the U. S. Senate 



ADOLPH MEYER 
Representative from Louisiana 





ROBERT C. DAVEY 
Representative from Louisiana 



CHARLES F. BUCK 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



253 






THE LATE SAMUEL T. BAIRD 
Representative from Louisiana 



ROBERT F. BROUSSARD 
Representative from Louisiana 





RICHARD BARTHOLDT 
Representative from Missouri 



CHAMP CLARK 
Representative from Missouri 



254 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: 





JOSEPH E. RANSDELL 
Representative from Louisiana 



THEODORE S. WILKINSON 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 





JOHN SHARP WILLIAMS 
Representative from Mississippi 



CHARLES J. BOATNER 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



255 





ANSON J. M'LAURIN 
Senator-Elect from Mississippi 



MURPHY J. FOSTER 
Senator-Elect from Louisiana 





M. R. PATTERSON 
Representative-Elect from Tennessee 



CHARLES F. JOY 
Representative from Missouri 



256 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





I 



CHARLES E. HOOKER 

Representative-Elect from Mississippi 
(Previous Service of Many Years) 



PATRICK HENRY . 
Representative-Elect from Mississippi 





HENRY \V. OGDEN 
Ex-Representative from Louisiana 



PHAKOR EREAZEALE 
Representative from Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



257 




L. W. BROWN 



258 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



PROTECTION OF CITIES AGAINST ENCROACHMENT 

OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



By L. W. Brown, C. E., Member Am. Soc. C. E. 



The great hardship, injury and detriment to the 
prosperity and value of the commerce of cities lo- 
cated on the Mississippi River, resulting from inse- 
cure wharves and landings, due to the constant 
changing of banks of the river, warrant the most 
thorough consideration of measures having for 
their object an amelioration of the existing con- 
ditions. 

Permanent wharves and landings not only at- 
tract commerce to a port, but materially reduce 
the cost of handling, and thus make trade and pros- 
perity. Hence, unless permanent wharves and 
landings are secured, commerce will be gradually 
deflected tO' other ports where permanent condi- 
tions are secured even if greater expense is entailed 
by reason of more circuitous route. As an illustra- 
tion: a shipper who has large shipments of goods 
that cannot be exposed to the weather, such as 
wines, etc., and who is willing to expend ihirty or 
forty thousand dollars for covered sheds or suitable 
warehouses adjacent tO' landings on which to store 
his shipments, finds that the water rates to New 
Orleans are considerably cheaper than to other 
ports, and he decides to ship to New Orleans and 
makes arrang-ements accordingly. But when he 
comes to investig'ate he finds that the banks of the 
river and landings are not permanent and he has 
no security that the sheds or warehouses he erects 
at a cost of thirty or forty thousand dollars will not 
within three years' time be either in the river or 
three squares from the river and thus render his 
investment valueless for the purpose designed. As 
a consequence he determines that it is economy to 
go to other ports where he has a guarantee of 
stability even at an increased water rate. Thus the 
port of New Orleans, or any other port located 
on the Mississippi River, is losing commerce and 
will continue to lose until such time as positively 
permanent wharves and landings can be provided. 



The insecurity of wharves and landings and the 
constant changing of river banks further injure and 
depreciate the interests of a city, in that valuable 
and expensive improvements made in the interest 
of commerce, or for manufacturing purposes or 
residences, are in a few years rendered practically 
valueless, due to the changing of river banks, either 
engulfing them or vastly impairing their value by 
reason of their being no longer accessible to the 
benefits and advantages of the locaHties originally 
selected. 

The interests of every city located on the Mis- 
sissippi River demand that some measures be 
adopted whereby the banks of the river are ren- 
dered stable, and there is no question but that with 
the engineering" knowledge now had of the subject 
and the skill and success which the profession has 
attained, satisfactory conditions can be secured. 
Hence the subject should receive the greatest 
possible consideration and study, and every meas- 
ure thoroughly and exhaustively considered and 
investigated until the method having the requisite 
efficiency and economy is secured. The subject of 
maintaining- permanent river banks has been con- 
sidered for many years and commissions appointed 
by different cities, at different times, to canvass the 
matter, but no definite or satisfactory conclusion 
has been reached as to the proper method, due no 
doubt to the fact that in order to reach a conclusion 
very extensive study and experiment was neces- 
sary, requiring a very considerable amount of time 
and money, which not being available has rendered 
futile any effective or satisfactory results. 

To the present tim.e only two methods have re- 
ceived any reasonable amount of consideration or 
experiment: the spur dike and mattress work, 
adopted by the Mississippi River Commission 
twenty years ago and still being used by them 
notwithstanding the questionable success of the 



Past— Present— Prospective 



259 



TSitj^J^lj 



'■uinii! 




o 

03 



o 



z E 



260 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



Avork; and the pile bank protection work adopted 
and constructed bj^ the Orleans Levee Board in the 
city of New Orleans under the recommendations 
and directions of the writer during the past three 
years. 

Before describing the relative merits of these two 
systems it is proper to analyze the cause of caving 
banks and the conditions existing which accelerate 
and hasten the caving and which rec|uire to be pro- 
vided against to render effective any work having 
for its object the protection of river banks against 
abrasion. 

The retardation of velocity of a flood river by a 
log, aggregation of floating- material or other 
cause and which may be extremely small at the 
beginning, allowing the suspended material to be 
precipitated, inaugurates the forming of a bar or an 
accretioning bank, and these deposits which are 
being constantly precipitated soon aggregate a 
very considerable volume on the river bottom: or 
on one of the banks, and naturally reduce the cross 
section of channel, which in turn increases momen- 
tarily the flood slope of the river and a momen- 
tarily accelerated velocity is produced, which, act- 
ing on lines of true laws of hydraulics, seeks and 
finds the line of least resistance and a new direction 
of current is formed setting towards the opposite 
shore to that where the accretioning in its incipi- 
ency is taking- place. Thus the current is allowed 
to impinge directly against the bank, very lightly 
at first, but gradually increasing in intensity until 
the slope of bank is abraded and undermined and 
the serious caving of bank ensues, which action is 
accelerated by the increasing of depth of bend due 
to continued caving and the full force of current of 
river being thus deflected directly against the 
bank. If the bank against which the current is 
being gradually forced could be reinforced so as to 
have sufficient resistance to overco'me the action of 
the current thus impinged against it and prevent 
its abrading the safe slope of bank, the current 
would scour out the deposits which were gradually 
forming and the proper cross section would be re- 
stored and consequently a stable channel would be 
secured. 

It will be observed that the work required and 
expense entailed to reinforce a bank at the incipi- 
ency of its caving is very limited and small as com- 
pared with the intricate work required and the 
large cost entailed to hold a caving bank against 



further caving when the current has been allowed 
to be deflected directly against it. AVhen not in- 
terfered with the whole volume of river will even- 
tually impinge against the abrading bank at right 
ang-les, as is often observed, and which requires a 
change in direction of flow of the whole volume, 
which requires an additional head to overcome the 
losses in velocity caused by the friction of the whole 
volume ag'ainst the bank, as also by the friction of 
the water on itself to turn a right angle. It will be 
further observed that when a bank has abraded so 
as to practically change the direction of current of 
the whole river the action of the current against 
the bank is so varied in its intensity throughout the 
stretch which is caving that the contour of bank 
becomes very irregular, due to formation of cur- 
rents, cross currents and eddies, and that at near 
the lower end of an abrading bank, or where the 
current is forced to take another direction, whirl- 
pools are formed, having imm-ense power and 
scour very deep and at a point adjacent to the 
bank, thus making the slope of bank very steep. 
If unmolested these whirlpools gradually set 
farther in towards the bank and constant disastrous 
caving is occasioned. 

As above observed, to prevent the abrading of 
river bank where the caving is in its incipiency, or 
where the current is just beginning to be forced 
over against the bank, very limited measures and 
small expense is required to force the current back 
to its old channel and prevent any caving whatever 
of the bank. 

Any measures having for their object the preser- 
vation of a, caving bank, or a bank against which 
the current is impinging with abrading force, from 
further caving that do not provide a uniform im- 
pingement throughout the stretch where the cav- 
ing bank exists for the current to strike against and 
thus remove the irregularities in the current, such 
as counter currents, cross currents, eddies and 
whirlpools, cannot be a permanent success. On 
the other hand, if measures on these lines are 
adopted whereby the current can be guided past 
the abrading bank at a uniform velocity the struc- 
ture required to accomplish this end would neces- 
sarily have to be of such a character as to impede 
the velocity and allow deposits tO' form, and gradu- 
ally any desired extension could be made riverward 
throughout the stretch of caving bank, as such a 
structure would provide a resistance more than 



Past— Present— Prospective 



261 



equal to that which is required to force the cur- 
rent towards the opposite shore or point, and 
would abrade same and the channel of flow would 
be thus forced over towards its original position. 
It will also be observed that an}^ measures which 
are adopted tO' secure satisfactory results must 
necessarily be of such a nature as to afl:ect at least 
thirty or forty feet of the body of river and extend 
to and above the surface of highest water, as the 
retardation of the velocity of this volume of flow by 
impingement against a proper structure will neces- 
sarily affect the flow of volume all the way to the 
bottom of river and retard its force in abrading- 
effect against the bank, or rather, produce a prac- 
tical uniform velocity throughout the whole 
stretch where such uniform impingement exists, 
for the reason that a river flowing around a circle, 
a cun^e or a bend, where the banks have a slope 
from the bottom of the river to the surface of the 
water, must necessarily increase the velocit)^ of the 
surface flow as it has the furthest to travel, and 
this velocity is proportionately decreased with the 
depth which has a proportionately less distance to 
travel. Hence it follows that measures provided 
as abo\'e suggested, to aft'ect thirty or forty feet of 
surface flow of a flood river, must necessarily affect 
the velocity of the whole volume of river, and, as 
has been practically demonstrated, accretioning 
of bank takes place and any g-radual exten- 
sion of bank desired can be secured by extend- 
ing riverward the line against which the current 
is impinged. This point is very clearly and 
practically demonstrated by the gradual exten- 
sion on the concave side of a bend of the river 
in the city of New Orleans between Jackson av- 
enue and Conti street, to the detriment of the Al- 
giers point. Within the last fifteen years the 
apex of concave of bend opposite the Algiers 
point, at between Calliope and Customhouse 
streets, has been extended fully 800 feet, caused by 
works which pi'ovide a uniform rate of impinge- 
ment for the water passing the bend, and the works 
are of a character to provide a resistance sufficient 
to protect the bank against abrading, and has 
forced the current from the bend and has caused 
the gradual caving off of the Algiers point to> pro- 
vide a proper cross section of channel. It might 
be obseiwed that the commercial interests of the 
city of New Orleans, between Calliope and Cus- 
tomhouse streets, which is directly in the apex of 
bend opposite the Algiers point, which is perhaps 



the sharpest point in the river, has been sufficient to 
gradually build and extend the river bank directly 
into the river, where 50 j'ears ago this bend ex- 
tended to near Tchoupitoulas street, a distance of 
upwards of 1,500 feet from the present line of 
wharves. 

Works to prevent abrading of river banks must 
necessarily extend from the upper end of the cav- 
ing, or where the caving- begins, and sufficiently far 
into the apex of bend to deflect the current away 
from the shore, and must necessarily be of such a 
nature as to actually eliminate the rough contours 
of the bank or provide conditions which will ac- 
complish this end and thus remove the cross cur- 
rents, counter currents, eddies, whirlpools, etc., 
and admit of the current to flow by at a uniform 
rate of velocity. 

Referring tO' the method of protecting banks by 
spur dikes and mattresses, it will be observed that 
the spur dikes fail in their object for the reason that 
the practice has been to place them directly in a 
caving bank, about 1,000 or 1,500 feet apart, and 
thus form a veritable dam, decreasing the cross 
section of the river by the area of their sides ex- 
posed to the current, which is a dike, 400 feet long 
and having an average height of 6 feet, would be 
2,400 square feet of area taken from the cross sec- 
tion of river; and these reductions in cross section 
necessarily require that the ^•oluI'ne of water pass- 
ing same will be checked until an increased head 
directly above the dike is provided in order to se- 
cure the increased velocit)' to pass the same volume 
of water through the contracted channel, which 
interferes with the uniform velocity and causes the 
formation of cross currents, which set directly into 
and against the bank, which it is desired to pro- 
tect, with sufficient force to very rapidly cause 
caving of the bank just abo\-e as also just below 
the location occupied by the structure. Hence 
sour dikes placed in the lower Mississippi posi- 
tively accelerate rather than retard the caving of 
any bank along which they are placed. 

Referring to the mattresses, they have proved 
unsuccessful to practically protect an abrading 
bank, for the reason that they are laid on the bank 
as it happens to exist withoitt any attempt being 
made to eliminate the rough contours of bank, 
and thus they fail in eliminating the cross cun-ents, 
counter currents, eddies, etc. And, again, they do 
not extend sufficiently high for the surface flow of 
a flood river to impinge against same, and as a 



262 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




Location of Box Levees on North Peters Street in 1897, entirely closing same along Third District Front, before Pile Bank Protection was started. 




Moving Levee Riverward and Opening Street, Third District. 



I'U UULIL 




Showing location of Pile Bank Protection Work, as inaugurated in 1897, moving Levee forward, opening North Peters Street, saving of the properties 
and enhancing the value in squares which would have been destroyed if Levees had been placed on Chartres Street, as contemplated in 1897. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



263 




Location of Mud Box and Foreshore, as existing prior to inauguration of the Pile Bank Protection Work. 




Removing Mud Box built in 1S96, building Earth Levee riverward and opening Peters Street, 
Third District, New Orleans. 








Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, as now existing. 



264 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



consequence the current often alirades the Ijank be- 
hind them and the mattresses and bank all cave 
into the river. Again, the mattress work, as any 
other protection work shoukl do to be successful, 
must begin at a point where the abrading bank be- 
gins and be laid continuously. Again, even if the 
mattresses are laid on a uniform contour and are 
laid continuously from the upper end of an abrading 
bank and are extended sufficiently high for the sur- 
face flow of a flood river to impinge against same, 
they do not admit of any extension of a concave 
bank which is necessar)- in order to render gradu- 
ally less intense the force of the current ag'ainst 
any structure which may be placed and to gradu- 
all}^ eliminate altogether the necessity of any 
structure other than the new natural bank which 
will be eventually formed. 

The absolute failure of mattress work to protect 
abrading banks has been very thoroughly and posi- 
tively demonstrated. Mattresses were placed and 
replaced between the years 1875 and 1SS2, at be- 
tween Marigny and Spain streets, but no cessation 
of the abrading of bank and caving of the pier head 
whar\^es was caused until 1892, when a continuous 
wharf was built, and no abrading of bank or caving 
of whaiwes has occurred since. 

Spur dikes and mattresses were placed in the 
third district bend between the years 1886 and 
1893, but no cessation of caving' was occasioned; 
in fact it is not certain but that they accelerated the 
abrading and caving' of bank, which continued very 
rapidly until 1S97, when the line of protection was 
a mud box placed directly against the highly im- 
proved property, annihilating the former paved 
Front street and batture, and when in 1897 the 
concensus of engineering opinion was to destroy 
the highly improved property and construct a 
levee 300 feet back; and with such results of what 
value was the spur dike and mattresses as a bank 
protection? As a matter of fact, the river bank in 
1897 was 75 to- 100 feet further inshore than when 
the mattresses were laid, hence, where were the 
mattresses in 1897? Figures 1 and 2 show position 
of two of these mattresses in third district in 1898. 

Has the mattress placed at Gouldsboro been of 
any value when in 1898 a cave occurred directly 
behind the work, engulfing the mattress, neces- 
sitating the building of a new levee and the aban- 
donment of a large tract of ground? Figure 3 
shows the extent of caving at the Gouldsboro mat- 
tress in 1898. 



I would also refer to the recent caving of the 
bank at Southport, where mattresses and spur 
dikes had been placed at very large cost, and where 
the caving in September, 1900, directly behind the 
location of the work, has been of such large extent 
as to necessitate the immediate construction of a 
new levee to protect against inundation, and to 
render insecure the extensive wharf and elevator 
improvements owned by the Yazoo & Mississippi 
Valley R. R. Co. In fact the levee now being built 
places all these improvements and a large tract of 
valuable ground on the river side of levee. 

In fact, is an instance recorded where mattresses 
and spur dikes have rendered unnecessar)' the 
moving back of levee? 

Directh' after the extraordinary high water of 
March and April, 1897, the Orleans Levee Board 
was confronted with extremely serious conditions 
of levees in third district of the cit}-. For nearly 
a mile the protection of the city against inundation 
consisted of a box levee 8 feet wide, placed directly 
aeainst highly improved manufacturing and resi- 
dence property, and the river bank had abraded to 
such extent that these mud boxes were located 
directly on the brink of the river. This rapid abra- 
sion of the bank occurred notwithstanding the fact 
that the United States Government had placed 
throughout this stretch very extensive work of the 
spur dike and mattress type; as a matter of fact 
they were engaged in this work for several years. 

The situation at this time, 1897, was such that 
extraordinary drastic measures had to be adopted. 
The concensus of opinion amongst all the engin- 
eers. Federal, State and city, in fact their recom- 
mendations were that a new levee be constructed 
in rear of the existing mud box levees throughout 
the stretch; and their recommendations were most 
strenuously urged by the press and otherwise not- 
withstanding the fact that such a measure would 
necessitate the destruction of a verjr large amount 
of valuable manufacturing- and residence property, 
and would annihilate several important manufac- 
turing industries which gave employment, in the 
aggreg-ate, to some 400 and 500 hands. The Or- 
leans Levee Board was extremely loath to de- 
stroy this valuable property, and after a very thor- 
ough consideration of the matter, and in opposi- 
tion to public opinion as delineated b}' the press, 
they determined to attempt to hold the then ex- 
isting line of levee by bank protection work, and 
the methods recommended bv the writer were 



Past— Present— Prospective 



265 




Two Views 



of work done by the Orleans Levee Board, protecting New Orleans Harbor. Photosraphs by Mississippi River Commission. 














' 












* 
























' 


J 













[Note.— Engraving does not show full relative depth of Piles.— £d.] 
Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, showing proposed work of New Levee Revetment, placing same on Piles and opening North Peters Street. 




[Note.— Engraving does not show full relative depth of Piles.— Ed.] 
Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, showing ultimate plan of work, with River Slope to Levee, provided Commerce does not utilize the front 

and material woodwork. 



266 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r. 



adopted and work inaugurated at once. Figure 
4 shows the position of the levees as they existed 
throughout this stretch in 1897 and the hetched 
scjuares which are highly improved and which were 
to be destroyed if levee was moved back. Figure 5 
shows the position of protection work and levee, 
and street opened, as contemplated by the method 
adopted in 1897. 

Figure 6 is a cross section showing the relative 
position of the box levee, river bank and improved 
property as existed in 1897. 

The method which was adopted and which I will 
term "Pile Bank Protection Work," embraces 
three stages, each stage to^ be executed at such 
time as conditions determine. 

The first stage is shown by Figure 7 and embraces 
the driving of piles throughout the stretch 70 to 
80 feet long, at a uniform distance apart and the 
work extending into the river to such line as will 
best receive and guide the current past the abrad- 
ing stretch, the whole work being vei-y thoroughly 
braced and secured together. The piles of bulk- 
head row being spaced closer together and support- 
ing a water-tight sheet pile bulk-head, forming sup- 
port for levee of increased dimensions over that of 
the mud box as shown. 

The results of the work were highly satisfac- 
tory, the banks not only ceased to abrade, but ac- 
tually accretioned, and the slope of bank was 
materially improved, which improvement as de- 
termined by soundings recently made, is still con- 
tinuing. 

The conditions of the bank throughout the 
stretch were in such condition in 1899 that the 
second stage of the work was inaugurated. This 
stage is shown by Figure 8, and consists of the an- 
nihilating of old mud box, driving of new bulk- 
head on river side of the one driven in 1897, and 
the placing of a strong substantial earth levee on 
the river side of Front street, directly into the river 
as it existed in 1897, and the opening up and re- 
gaining use of street. It will be observed that the 
piles driven in 1897, which were located in line of 
levee were cut off below street surface and addi- 
tional piles driven and the levee placed on these 
piles and supported thereby, the same as a building, 
which transmits the weight of levee to a plane on 
line near bottom of river and relieves the batture 
and bank of the weight of levee. 

Figures 7 and 8 show the moving of levee river- 
ward in course of execution. 

The third or last stage, as shown by Figure 9, 



contemplates the placing of a river slope of earth 
on the levee as constructed during second stage 
and supporting same on piles and is tO' be under- 
taken at such time as desired, it being the intention 
to execute this work when the bulk-head in front 
has deteriorated to such extent as to require re- 
newal, and after this river slope is completed to 
protect the earth by a light wave wash revetment 
in front as shown in Figure 9. 

The conditions secured by Pile Bank Protection 
Work are that the work extends continuously from 
the upper end of an abrading bank sufficiently far 
into the bend to throw the current from the shore; 
that it extends above highest flood line and suffi- 
ciently far into the river tO' affect 30 or 40 feet of 
the body of a high river; that the piles are placed at 
a uniform: distance apart and provide a uniform ob- 
struction to current striking same; that the front or 
river line of work is placed to such line as tO' best re- 
ceive and guide the current past the work; and the 
theory of the success of the work is that the flow of 
river for a depth of 30 or 40 feet is guided past the 
abrading bank at a safe and unifoiTn velocity by 
being allowed to impinge against the piles placed at 
a uniform distance apart and on such a line as to 
assist the deflection of current from bank, and 
which obliterates the cross currents, counter cur- 
rents and whirlpools, and checks the velocity of 
whole river sufficiently to form a gradual improve- 
ment of the bank of river, limiting the extent of 
movement of bed of river towards the opposite 
bank only by the gradual extension of the Pile 
Bank Protection Work into the river; all of which 
is in line with nature's laws, in that the method 
adopted provides the line of least resistance on the 
side or at the point where under unmolested con- 
ditions the line of greatest resistance existed, and 
securing satisfactory results by the utilization of 
the same forces which previously acted to the detri- 
ment of all interests. 

In comparing the results of the two plans which 
have been studied and experimented with, it does 
not follow that either of the plans embrace all the 
requisite qualities for bank protection, and as can 
be seen the subject is a most exhaustive and im- 
portant one, and there is no doubt but a continuous 
and careful consideration of the subject will develop 
methods which will embrace the necessary econ- 
omy and efficiency, and that the Mississippi River 
Commission can be harnessed and bridled so as to 
obey with absolute certainty the course which man 
shall dictate. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



267 




F. M. NORFLEET 



268 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



A CREVASSE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



By F. M. NORFLEET 



When, early in jMarch, the river had reached 
danger stage at Cairo, and the main tributaries 
were pouring in such additional volumes, I began 
to feel uneasy for the safety of the levee system 
along the Yazoo front, and especially that line 
fronting my planting interests on the south bank 
of Flower Lake, in Tunica County, Mississippi, 

I decided to make a personal examination, and 
to aid in making a strenuous fight to hold the 
levees. On my arrival there, I found 4 or 5 miles 
of levee which was below the general grade, and at 
a ver\" exposed place where the line of levee was 
running almost due east and west, and directly op- 
posed to the current of the Mississippi River. The 
gravity of the situation impressed me, and a meet- 
ing of the citizens was held to discuss the best 
course to pursue. AVe began to raise the levee at 
once tuider the manag'ement of Capt. T. C. Fer- 
guson, one of the Levee District Commissioners, 
with the best forces which we could muster. It 
soon became apparent that we had started too late, 
and with resources too meager for so large an un- 
dertaking. The chief engineer, and other of^cials 
of the Yazoo Levee Board, were engaged in a 
tremendous fight to hold the levee line at Green 
Grove, in Coahoma County, and all the power of 
the official organization was utilized and almost ex- 
hausted in holding that point. This was success- 
fully accomplished, finally, owing probably to the 
break in the levee on the Arkansas side, which al- 
lowed the crest of the great rise to flow off through 
the White River basin. 

The energies of the Levee Board were then 
turned toward getting men and -material to aid us 
on the Flower Lake front, which was placed under 
the control of Capt. A. L. Dabney, but, as stated 
above, it was too late — Grant and his army could 
hardly have saved the day then. The land back 
of, and along the line of, the levees had become so 
thoroughly saturated with seep water, that dirt 
could no longer be had to fill sacks, nor for wheel- 
barrows. It w-as evident that the great river 



would break through the feeble barriers which we 
interposed to stay its ravages, and, although we 
had piled sacks of earth on top of the levee four and 
five deep, and backed them up with dirt for miles, 
we could see the rushing floods might well laugh at 
our puny efforts, and that we had not planned by 
half what was necessary. Preparations now must 
be made for the inevitable! On Saturday after- 
noon, April 3, I told the heads of families living on 
my place to discontinue work on the levee (we had 
considerable outside help by this time), and to ar- 
range to protect their families and save their 
household effects and livestock. We had already 
built an inclosure adjoining a strong piece of levee, 
and had corraled all the livestock on the place so 
that in case of a levee break, it would only be 
necessary to open a gate and drive them over this 
protection levee, where they would be safe. Natur- 
ally, I felt a great responsibility for the lives of about 
200 women and children on my place who were in 
the darkness of the night, amid the most terrific 
rain and wind storms, and peals of thunder which 
shook the very earth itself, sleeping in their beds 
from 6 to 10 feet below the surface of the water, 
which for miles in their front was being held back 
by a levee soaked through and through, and leak- 
ing in myriads of places, and trickling over the tops 
here, there, and everywhere. I was apprehensive 
that this great menacing wall of water might break 
through in the darkness of the night like a Niagara 
and carry death and destruction in its path. I 
could not sleep. I have been in front of the can- 
non's mouth, and have heard the rattle of mus- 
ketry and the whistling of bullets, but I had never 
felt such an awful dread before. If the crash could 
have come earlier, before the water had been 
dammed to such a great height, the danger would 
have been less, but the long-drawn-out fight and 
higher water intensified the expected calamity. I 
sat in a chair all that night in a drizzling rain on the 
levee, with a dozen barefoot negro boys to patrol 
the levee with lanterns to see if the water was com- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



269 









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BEGINNING OF A CREVASSE 




CREVASSE AT ITS MAXIMUM 



270 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



ing- throug-h — to detect signs of immediate danger 
(a man with shoes on could not stand or walk on 
the levees at night). When daylight came — that 
beautiful Sunday morning — I could see the prog- 
ress the river had made during that awful long 
night. I saw at once that all hope was gone — • 
that it would be impossible to hold the levee until 
noon. I went to plantation headquarters and noti- 
fied the manager that all was over, and that he 
could prepare for the worst. Old Sol was then 
rising — clear and beautiful — for the first time in 
days. He seemed to have his face unveiled to see, 
without hindrance, the fearful crash of water that 
in the next few hours would break through the 
artificial barriers that staid their way, and cover the 
homes and lands of thousands of people with its en- 
gulfing waves. I tried to compose myself for a 
short sleep, but it was impossible. The danger and 
the excitement of the moment had caused sleep to 
vanish from my eyes. Accompanied by Mr. T. H. 
McKenzie, of Lulu, Miss., we mounted our horses 
and went back to see if anything more could be 
done. On reaching the levee I found a squad of 
negroes and whites that had been instructed to 
take the place of the night force, still in camp wait- 
ing for breakfast, the hopelessness of the situation 
making demoralization complete. Mr. McKenzie 
went ahead down the levee to see if any dangerous 
places had developed in the last two hours. He 
had gone but a short distance when I heard him 
halloo, "Bring 25 men with shovels and sacks — 
quick!" We ran to the point from which he had 
called. I could see the waters breaking through 
the levee about one-third of the way down from 
the top — it was a high levee at this point — in a 
stream 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and before get- 
ting to where Mr. McKenzie stood it was the size 
of a stove-pipe, and in less than a minute of a water 
bucket, then a barrel, and before you could de- 
scribe it, the whole top of the levee was twisting in, 
and the water was forcing itself through in a great 
torrent, and striking the ground beyond the base 
of the levee with terrific force, rebounding in awful 
anger, white waves 20 feet high tearing great oak 
and gum trees out by the roots, and tossing them 
about as if they were cork. The ends of the levee 
began to erode very rapidly above and below the 
break, until over 15 acres were torn out like a 
great well, with holes and pits, some of them 50 
feet deep. The rushing, swirling, tumbling waters 



made a sight of wondrous grandeur and appalling 
solemnity. The caving became more gradual until 
the break was about a half mile wide. But the 
great tension was over, and we turned our 
thoughts to getting the families out of danger, and 
preventing other breaks taking place before relief 
came from the fall in the river caused by this break. 

All during this levee fight, and after the crevasse 
occurred, I was getting valuable and practical ex- 
perience that can be made useful in the future. 
This is a description of the greatest crevasse that 
ever occurred on the banks of the greatest river 
in the world. The result of my observation is that 
there is not half the danger to life and personal 
property in being located behind a great levee 
when the break occurs as one would suppose. For 
instance, it was quite six hours before the water 
covered my place, and just to the extent that the 
water raised on the land side, the level was low- 
ered on the river side, so that by the time there 
was an average depth of 4 feet on the land, the 
river had fallen 4 feet, and the ^vater never attained 
anything like the depth that one would naturally 
suppose it would, as it was piled up from 10 to 20 
feet above the height of the land against the levees. 
All the people on my place and adjoining places 
had ample time to get away to elevations of safety. 
There were about four or five tenant houses, which, 
being in the main track of the current, were washed 
a.wa^^ but, as stated, the occupants had plenty of 
time to move out. If the break had occurred at 
night there might have been some loss of life, but 
it is hardly probable. The rapid faU of the river 
after the break relieved the levee line above and be- 
low, so that it dried out c^uickly, and afforded a safe 
place to all whose homes were overflowed by the 
waters. 

The next practical lesson I learned was that as 
soon as fears are entertained for the strength of a 
levee, it is the part of wisdom to commence with all 
resources at hand at once, and spare no expense 
in strengthening weak places that may be known 
to exist. This can be done while the dirt along 
the levee is dry, and at from one-half to one-tenth 
the cost at which it must be done at the last mo- 
ment. It will not suffice to begin with plantation 
hands in small squads to strengthen the levee in 
time of emergency. To accomplish am^thing there 
must be well organized camps with ample bedding 
and cooking outfits, also proper tools, run planks. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



271 




SAFE ON THE LEVEE - BREAKFAST SCENE DURING FLOOD OF 189 




BOAT RACE IN THE OVERFLOW-SCENE DURING THE FLOOD OF 1897 



272 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



etc., on the ground in good time, and these outfits 
should be kept on hand, or arranged for by our 
levee boards so as to have them always ready. 
There is no class of work on the earth that the old 
adage, "Not to put off until to-morrow what can be 
done to-day," applies with more force. A half levee 
in the time of extremely high water is far worse 
than no levee at all, and there should be no cessa- 
tion by any levee board until the entire line is 
brought to its maximum height and width, if it is 
possible by any means to get funds to complete 
the work. 



A great part of our levees are below their ulti- 
mate dimensions, and it is hoped that with larger 
appropriations, and with more active work for the 
next four or five 3'ears, these will be raised above the 
danger of recurring floods. There may be before 
this time many more breaks in the levees, but the 
consensus of opinion among all practical levee men 
is that such a thing as a general overflow is hardly 
possible. More money and more dirt means more 
safety and more development, and we are putting 
great faith and great hopes in the action of the 
General Government. 




Past— Present— Prospective 



273 





'Tt^ iii^c^^ 



274 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER FROM CAIRO TO NEW 

ORLEANS AND FROM NEW ORLEANS 

TO THE GULF, 1072 MILES 



Compiled by JNO. W. BRYANT, of New Orleans, 
From such Records as were Obtainable at the Cities Along the River 



Commercial Statistics— Statement Showing the Number of Vessels, Steam and Unrigged, Tonnage, 

the Transportation of Freights and the Values of Vessels and Commodities, 

for the Year from June 1, 1898, to May 31, 1899 



The census of 1890 divided the waterways of the 
Mississippi Valley into three rivers of origin — the 
Ohio, the Upper Mississippi, and the Lower 
Mississippi. The Lower Mississippi was made to 
begin at St. Louis. From that city, and inclusive 
of the tributaries, the Lower Mississippi mileage 
of waterways was given as comprising 6,228 miles, 
of which 5,695 miles was being navigated in 1890. 

The 1890 census report gives the total of com- 
merce originating on the Lower Mississippi as 
follows, to-wit: Wheat, 528,800 tons; corn, 698,- 
545 tons; other grain, 57,861 tons; cotton, 865,228 
tons; cotton-seed and cotton-oil products, 392,988 
tons; sugar, 131,918 tons; coal, 360,799 tons; a 
total of 3,036,169 tons. That included the river 
from St. Louis down. Another exhibit gave the 
tonnage as follows, viz. : Lower Mississippi, 4,374,- 
671 tons; White River, 86,398 tons; Arkansas 
River, 1,663,817 tons; Yazoo River, 77,380 tons; 
Ouachita River, 93,707 tons; Red River, 105,145 
tons; a grand total of 6,401,203 tons. 

Just how 865,228 tons cotton, equal (at 500 
pounds to the bale) to 3,460,912 bales, is made to 
originate on the Lower Mississippi River is not 
shown in the exhibits, and is not easy to under- 
stand in view of another exhibit in the same report, 
Avhich gives the total product of the cotton crop of 
Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, 
Mississippi and Louisiana, the seven states border- 
ing the Lower Mississippi, as amounting to a total 
of 678,176 tons, or 2,712,707 bales. 

The statement prepared at this time, as stated 
above, embraces the river south of Cairo, inclusive 



of the tributaries, and is a showing of the tonnage 
and commerce not onty originating but actually 
passing on the rivers, and for the period men- 
tioned. 

VESSELS 



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Steam's 189 62,314 6,212 1,590,004 $4,381,000 
Barges.. 1,635 1,408,814 2,470 2,082,260 2,003,000 



Total. . . 1,824 1,471,128 8,682 3,672,264 $6,334,000 
Tributa- 
ries. 
Steam's. 

Local 
Total . 61 3,193 
Entr'ces 
N. O. C'st'm 

House. 
Total .1,324 1,928,061 



Grand 
Total .3,209 3,402,068 

The above exhibit does not include vessels, 
steam or otherwise, engaged in harbor \\'ork ex- 
clusivel}^ nor ferry or railroad transfer boats. Nor 
does it include the various vessels owned and em- 
ployed in the Government service. 



Past— Present— Prospective 275 

COMMERCE the development of the raUroads across and paral- 

Between Cairo and New Orleans — l^l^^g the river; the comparison showed a diversion 

Total number of tons carried— tons . 4,708,355 °^ about one-third of the river business. The cen- 

Total value $94 605 762 ^^^ report of 1890, admitted by the Commissioner 

Between New Orleans and the t° ^^ incomplete in the returns from the carriers 

Q^^jl by water, showed over fifty per cent of all of the 

Total coastwise and foreign— tons.. 2,985,643 commerce of the country carried by water. Some 

Total value $144 704 136 ^^'^ years ago statistics of the river were prepared 

Grand total between Cairo and the ' ' i" ^he interest of a corporation proposing to build 

Q^lf |-Qj^g Y 693 998 ^ bridge across the Mississippi River somewhere 

Grand total value $239,'309!89S above New Orleans, and it was so used, but it 

showed a diversion of thirty-five per cent only. Of 

COMMODITIES course it wiU be understood that the railroads were 

The chief commodities moved by vessels, be- carrying more than that thirty-five per cent, for as 

tween Cairo and New Orleans, exclusive of the h-s been said. 'The watenvay creates traffic for 

local traffic in the tributaries, may be enumerated "the railroad as well as itself, makes raw materials 

follows viz • "cheaper, increases the number that are available 

"for use, and adds to the products of agriculture 

Cotton — bales 612,242 ,, , , , , ■ f * ^- >. 

' and manufacture seekmg transportation. 

Cottonseed — tons 166,049 

Sugar and molasses— tons 153,664 -^ president of one of the great railroad systems 

Lumber and logs— feet 444,539,180 paralleling the Mississippi River is quoted as hav- 
ing said; "Coal, iron, steel, and other freights 

It is nearly impossible to prepare a complete "should be carried by water, for the building up of 

statement of the river's tonnage and commerce un- "manufacturing industries by this means among 

less in the examination of the books on every boat. "the towns and cities along the river would give 

That requires opportunity and time, for, as it is "larger traffic to the railroads in more profitable 

now, always was, and ever will be, the steamboats, "lighter freight." The moral of which is, maybe, 

all of them, are not under corporate control. that otherwise coal, iron, steel, etc., would come 

There are lines of boats, but wherever the line, as higher. 

where the line is not, there are individually owned Three years ago an eminent civil engineer, whose 

and independently operated steamboats, which are interests, public and private, at the time were deep 

in one place one time, and somewhere else at an- in the plans for the building of another bridge 

other time. Because of this, and because of the over the Mississippi, said before a Congressional 

necessity of going for the data to each and every committee: "The railroad business is rapidly and 

boat wherever they might be, which was not done "largely increasing, and that of the river decreas- 

in this instance, a full table of the statistics has "ing." Now, he was plainly exalting the one and 

not been given. They call for only what was ob- belittling the other, but his facts and figures were 

tainable, and the record of no boat not visited has not so much in evidence as the location of some 

been computed. of the bridge piers he had planned, two of which. 

Some sixteen or seventeen years ago, the writer at least, have wrought destruction to life and prop- 

of this prepared for the use of the Mississippi River erty, and to an extent sufficient of itself to have 

Commission, a two years' exhibit of the river's served as a warning against the continued building 

commerce into New Orleans from above, and also of low, narrow-spanned and faultily-located 

one covering the two years just preceding the com- bridges. In truth, it is only just such bridges 

pletion of the Eads Jetties (South Pass), Missis- which are opposed by rivermen, who firmly believe 

sippi River. This was about the time of the that if the departments of the Government were 

passing ol the "river palaces" still so much vv ritten as zealous and exacting in the care of the com- 

about by mossback pessimists, who apparently do merce passing under these bridg'es, as they are 

not know of there being more tonnage on the considerate of the objections of greater cost al- 

rivers to-day than then, and it was coincident with ways raised against the higher, wider-spanned 



276 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





CAPT. WM. CAMPBELL 



CAPT. CHAS. W. DROWN 




CAPT. J. B. WOODS 





CAPT. A. M. HALLIDAY 



CAPT. CHAS P. TRUSLOW 



Past— Present— Prospective 



277 





CAPT. L. V. COOLEY 



CAPT. E. J. COMEAllX 




>.^^R^ >"«*i 





CAPT. W. L. DUKE 



CAPT. C. S. KOUNS 



278 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - 





CAPT. JAMES LEE 
Founder of the Lee Line of Steamers 



CAPT. J. W. CARLTON 





CAPT. T. P. LEATHER 



CAPT. GEO. \V. REA 



Past— Present— Prospective 



279 



bridge, there would be fewer protests, and the 
probabilities of accidents reduced to a minimum. 
It has been the wonder that the authorities, while 
planning and spending millions for the improve- 
ment and preservation of navigation, yet permit 
of obstructions, and stranger still, should appear 
always so suspicious and unresponsive to the pro- 
tests of the rivermen. The steamboats have but 
the one way to go, but a bridge may be built which 
neither hinders nor imperils. 

A railroad president wrote: "The matter of 
'transportation is one of the most vital import to 
'all the people next to^ the cultivation of the soil. 
'* * * There is no question but that the 
'cheapest transportation which can be furnished 
'in any waj' is by a good steamboat and deep water 
'in which to run her." • 

This 3'ear 66,615 tons steel rails, nearly 3,500 
carloads, were towed on barges all the way, 2,000 
miles, from Pittsburg to New Orleans and there 
transferred to railroad cars. Would the railroads 
have refused the earnings of that long haul, par- 
ticularly in the face of oft-repeated assertions that 
the long was cheaper than the short haul, unless, 
indeed, it was being carried the cheapest by river? 
Then, if water transportation is the cheapest, how 
can it be said that the steamboat is being dis- 
placed? 

At this last session of Congress a committee of 
business men from the Ouachita valley appeared 
before the Rivers and Harbors Committee to en- 
dorse and urge a proposed plan for slackwater nav- 
igation. These gentlemen gave in evidence the 
fact that when the steainboats get to Camden 
cotton is shipped YOO miles to New Orleans at 
$1.25 per bale. When it has to go all-rail — 475 
mileSi — the rate is $3.10 per bale. Flour was 35 
cents per barrel by steamboat, 75 cents on the 
railroad. Boots and shoes, all water from Boston, 
was 79 cents; all rail, $2.02. But these great dif- 
ferences in rates, they said, was enjoyable only dur- 
ing the navigable periods, after then the maxi- 
mum rates maintain, and this applies to^ every other 
stream. It being an established principle in the 
economics of commerce that the speedier and 
easier the products of a section pass along the trade 
routes, the greater will be the return for the labor 
of the producer, and the further will go the pur- 
chase money of the consumer. 

But this leads to the consideration of whv has 



there been this diversion of the river's traffic? 
There are three principal reasons, one, interrupted 
navigation; another, railroad bridges; the third, 
federal and local legislation. 

It is perhaps because river improvement does 
not always improve that rivers and harbors appro- 
priations have been called a steal. The people of 
a locality petition for steamboat navigation, their 
Congressman advocates it, the United States en- 
gineer examines, estimates and recommends. Con- 
gress gives the money (never the full amount), and 
the United States engineer expends it. There is 
no steal there, nor is there preventable waste, for 
the rivermen know of no calling more honest and 
conscientious than that of the engineer, just as 
others know of, there not being a better informed, 
more conservative, business-like committee in any 
leg-islative body than the Rivers and Harbors Com- 
mittee of Congress. Yet the truth is, there has not 
been realized the long-sought, greatly to be de- 
sired, satisfying results from the generous, as un- 
questionably wise, provisions of Congress, and the 
working's of the United States engineers, to un- 
loose the fettered waterways and give greater im- 
petus to its restricted commerce. Sand bars and 
snags still hinder and endanger navigation during 
the low-water season with discouraging regularity 
of recurrence, and for often the longest half of the 
)'ear — almost always from July to November, the 
season of harvest. When steamboats have to stop 
altogether or pull and force themselves over bars 
and snags, to the bottom of the river or in dock, 
serious losses are incurred. In most of the tribu- 
taries there are the same impediments to safe con- 
tinuous navigation, the same consequent exces- 
sive insurance (from S to 18 per cent), the same 
periods of enforced idleness which existed ten and 
twenty years ago-, and their betterment is still noth- 
ing more than a promise. 

In an article in the New York Nautical Gazette 
on the decline of the western river steamboat trade, 
it was written: 

"On the Ohio the chief reason for the decline 
"in the volume of business done is caused solely 
"by reason of lack of water. ''' '■' * Navigation 
"is suspended the greater part of the time, and a 
"great fleet of boats is tied up, waiting- for a rise in 
"the river. * * * 

"It is a fact well known to all conversant with 
"navigation on the Ohio River that if there was 



280 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




MISSISSIPPI VALLEY MARINE RAILWAY AND DOCK COMPANY'S DOCK AT MOUND CITY, ILL. 




GOOD INTENT DRY DOCK, NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



281 




iTff^.w^^r^i^^*^^ 



DAVIS ISLAND DAM—THE INITIAL POINT OF COAL SHIPMENTS FOR THE SOUTH 




COAL IN PITTSBURG HARBOR WAITING FOR A RISE IN THE RIVER 



282 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 




SHIPPING COAL DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER — FLEET PASSING OUT UNDER OHIO RIVER BRIDGE 



■, ^:<<?X'31crswa»o;Wffs^ 




"ON THE BOSOAl OF THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI" 



Past— Present— Prospective 



283 




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BARGE CARRYING 1,013,000 FEET OF LUMBER, SHIPPED FROM THE HARDWOOD LUMBER DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEAST 

MISSOURI, CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. 

















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SCENE AT THE STEAMBOAT LANDING AT NEW ORLEANS— HIGH WATER 1897 



284 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



"sufficient water at all times between Pittsburg and 
"the lower river that an immense volume of busi- 
"ness would be done constantly. Steamboats 
"worth many millions of dollars are tied up most of 
"the year on account of inability to ply up and 
"down the Ohio, while on-the Monongahela, which 
"is nothing more or less than the upper part of this 
"stream, steamers are enabled to ply the year 
"round, excepting, of course, such times as ice may 
"block the way. This is made possible by means 
"of the movable dams with which that river is 
"supplied." 

When this was published the gauge mark in the 
Monongahela stood at 5 feet 1, while below Pitts- 
burg, there was but 1 foot 4 of water on the gauge. 

It is this, these interruptions to navigation and 
consequent idleness of the steamboats, the discour- 
agement of efforts and investment, the bridges 
which hinder and destroy, and the attempts by in- 
junction to lessen the size of passing tows, togeth- 
er with the insurance made higher from these 
causes. To these more than all else can be at- 
tributed the decline of the river's commerce. 

There is the Missouri river, for iUustration: 
There was an example of the undoing of the 
steamboat, not by the railroad, not from the lack of 
patronage, but because of the conditions of which 
we write. The failure to improve or maintain nav- 
igation, and the many bridges across that river, 
the excessive insurance, finally altogether with- 
drawn, wrought such destruction as to finally ex- 
haust the most hopeful and persevering. But the 
disappearance of. the steamboat was not without 
incident. Though the river's condition was not at 
all comparable to that of the Lower Mississippi, of 
which Mr. Stuyvesant Fish wrote, "We can, how- 
"ever, expect to have the channel of the river so 
"far straightened and deepened as to afford trans- 
"portation by steamboats and barges at rates which 
"will continue to regulate those of railroads as cf- 
"fectually as the rate charged by the trunk lines 
"from Chicago to the Atlantic seaboard are regu- 
"lated by the water competition of the great lakes 
"and the Erie canal. Indeed, the almost total ab- 
"scnce of any closing of na\'igat;on on the lower 
"Mississippi by ice will there prolong this com- 
"petition throughout the year." 

Yet the merchants of its principal city soon 
found themselves in the grasp of that other carrier, 
which always pools rather than compete, and who. 



in order to get back something like former condi- 
tions were themselves forced to build steamboats to 
lift the burden upon their business. Though those 
steamboats were operated but a brief time, because 
of the proffering and acceptance of concessions not 
to be had before, yet the lesson was there, which 
is, that competition of carriers is as much an es- 
sential with the shipper as is a free permanent chan- 
nel in the successful operation of a steamboat. The 
one is the absolute indispensable of the other, for, 
as has l^een written: "Any diversion of the trans- 
"portation and exchange of products from the 
"natural route must be attended by a commercial 
"loss that will lay added burdens upon the people." 
Another great drawback has been the interstate 
commerce law\ That law was a mistake, in that it 
is not made tO' apply tO' all carriers alike, and so en- 
forced. Besides, it is so wanting in application as 
to hardly command respect. It is a law notoriously 
more honored in the breach than observance, and 
has been used to beat down the steamboat as could 
be done in no other way. Construction of this law 
has given the one carrier opportunities that no steam- 
boat possesses, or ever wall. A carrier which can at 
will force minimum and maximum competitive and 
non-competitive rates along its line is a power 
against which no steamboat may contend. A loss 
here or there is not felt with such ready means for 
recouping. There are, however, no such advan- 
tages with the steamboat, for when it takes freight 
at the purposely reduced, almost impossible rail- 
road competitive point rate, it cannot recoup else- 
where, for at every non-railroad point there is the 
ever-existing steamboat competitive rate. It is 
under such a law, supposedly to prohibit such con- 
ditions, that the steamboat is driven very hard. 

Mr. Cleveland once suggested that the Lower 
Mississippi river was great enough and had of itself 
merit sufficient to alone command the most prompt 
and generous care of the Government. That is true, 
but, as the bulk of the commerce carried does not 
originate upon that river but in the tributaries, their 
merit and necessities appeal just as strongly as that 
of the mightier river itself. So, let there be some 
more satisfying permanent improvement in naviga- 
tion, enable the steamboats to come and go at will, 
and thev will find employment and welcome; will 
serve and benefit, prosper and multiply to an extent 
which will justify many times all the aid and pro- 
tection demanded and given. 





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INTERIOR VIEW OF ONE OF THE LEE LINE STEAMERS 








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Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




VIEWS OF NEW STEEL TOW BOAT AND BARGES IN PROCESS OF BUILDING. 
(The recent successful trip from St. Louis to New Orleans and return has been noted. — Ed.) 




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Past— Present— Prospective 



295 



A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE OPERATIONS OF THE 

YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI DELTA LEVEE 

BOARD ORGANIZATION 



From Report of Chief Engineer, Arranged by CAPT. A. L. DABNEY, Ass'i Chief Engineer 



In the beginning' of the year 18S4 the Yazoo- 
Alississippi Delta Levee District was organized by 
an act oi the Legislature, with power tO' issue 
$500,000 in bonds. At that time the district was 
in a most deplorable condition, having been swept 
over its entire length and breath by three successive 
overflows. As a consecjuence great industrial de- 
pression prevailed. Man}' plantations had been 
abandoned and the planters were greatly discour- 
aged. As a rule, even' man was willing to sell out, 
but none desired to purchase. There had been no 
levee organization existing for six or eight years, 
and the administration of levee matters by the last 
preceding' Levee Board, in the early seventies, had 
been characterized by all the extravagance, waste 
and inefficiency incident to public organizations dur- 
ing the "reconstruction era." This naturally re- 
sulted in a feeling of apathy on the part of the 
people towards levees, which was accentuated, after 
the collapse of that Levee Board, by a succession of 
low water years, when levees were little needed. 
But the disastrous overflows of 1882, 'S3 and '84 
aroused them to^ the necessity of action if the countn- 
was still tO' be man's habitation, with the present 
organization as the result : Former experience had 
made people jealous and apprehensive on the sub- 
ject, and in framing the levee law great pains were 
taken to prevent the possibilit}- of peculation and 
maladministration of levee affairs. The restrictions 
in the law were at first so severe as tO' impair the 
Board's power for necessary action, and were sub- 
secjuently somewhat modified. 

NEGOTIATING THE BONDS 

AMien this Levee Board was organized and began 
operations in the spring of 1884, the only money 
at their command was a few thousand dollars, raised 



by private subscription, for the purpose of making 
a preliminary survey and estimate. This had to be 
done hastil}^ and imperfectly, tO' be laid before the 
Mississippi River Commission in July. The result 
showed that the amount of bonds authorized by the 
Legislature, if successfuUj' floated, would yield less 
than half enough money to put up the levees north 
of the Hushpuckana to the standard then aimed at. 
The Mississippi River Commission had then no 
means with which tO' aid the Levee Board, and per- 
sistent efforts to raise money on the bonds, during 
the summer and early fall, failed of results. Early 
in October the Board had a final adjournment and 
gave up the case as a "lost cause." R. T. Wilson 
& Co. were deeply interested in the enterprise and 
were disposed to give their aid, but had grave doubts 
whether that amount of money would accomplish 
enough good to justify the venture on their part. 
They came forward, however, after the final ad- 
journment of the Board, and off'ered to find money 
to cash the bonds at par, charging 2^ per cent, com- 
mission for the service, malting' it also a condition 
that the Mississippi Valley Construction Company 
should have the contract for doing all the work at 
25 cents per cubic yard. The Board was called to- 
gether once more to consider this proposition, which 
revived a hope that had been dead; and, after due 
deliberation, the terms proposed were accepted. At 
that time the price demanded for undertaking to do 
all this work was not excessive, as it embraced all 
the incidentals of clearing- and grubbing, surface 
breaking, sodding, etc., besides assuming all risks 
from floods, and the obligation to have all the work 
completed before the next high water, the time then 
being apparently short. The work was parcelled out 
to several levee contractors, and in the outcome the 
construction company realized 7 per cent, profit on 
their outlav, as the record shows. 



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Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





D. M. RUSSELL 



WM. H. STOVALL 





D. A. SCOTT 




THE LATE B. S. RICKS 



A. L. DABNEY 
Assistant Chief Engineer 




J. W. CUTRER, President (center), Coahoma County. 
3. IRA G. HOLLOW AY, De Soto County. 
, 7. WALTER L. KEIRN, V.-Pres., Holmes County 
10. R. C. IRWIN, Tunica County 



1. ALBERT A. SHARP, Y.&M.V.R. R. 

4. E. L. ANDERSON, Coalioma County. 

8. T. G. JAMES, Tallahatchie County. 

11. B. L. JONES, La Flore County. 



2. W. J. KYLE, Tunica County. 

5. L. MARKS, Quitman County. 

9. R.V. POWERS, Yazoo County. 

12. J. A. CRAWFORD, Sunflower County. 



JCIN, Tunica County. ''• "■'-■■'"■ 

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT 



300 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



EXTENT OF JURISDICTION 

At the beginning of its career tliis Board 
assumed control of that part of the river front 
lying north of the Hushpuckana bayou only, leav- 
ing the twelve miles of levee between that point 
and the Bolivar County line to the care of the 
Greenville Board. Subsequently the jurisdiction 
of this Board was extended over the entire front 
of Coahoma County. 

CONDITION OF THE LEVEES IN 18S4 

The first survey of the levees, in 18Si, disclosed 
a condition that was rather appalling to an engi- 
neer who assumed the task of protecting the dis- 
trict from overflow, with an uncertain prospect of 
a very insufficient fund with which to accomplish 
it. There then existed an aggregate of thirty-nine 
miles of actual gaps in the levees north of the 
Hushpuckana, and about an ecjual extent of levee 
over which the water had flowed freely during 
the preceding floods. The remaining fragments 
were, as a rule, so insignificant in height and other 
dimensions as would make them noiw an object of 
ridicule to levee engineers. Added to this was the 
further fact that the methods of original construc- 
tion were crude and imperfect, and many cases of 
fraudulent practices were disclosed in the presence 
of cribs of wood and other forbidden matters found 
embodied in the old levees. They had, moreo^'er, 
been for a long time utterly neglected, and in 
many cases were so overgrown with trees, cane 
and thickets as to be scarcely distinguishable from 
the surrounding forests. When it is remembered 
that Cottonwood and sweet gum trees will in a few 
years attain a considerable size, producing roots 
enough to honeycomb a levee, and many of them 
will in a few years die and disappear, leaving no 
evidence above ground that they had once existed, 
this, coupled with other features of weakness men- 
tioned above, leaves small room for wonder that 
the old .system of levees was rotten and full of leaks 
from one end to the other, and levee protection 
had largely come to be regarded as a failure. 
Neither is it surprising that this frail line of 
defenses should have yielded like chaff to the floods 
that had recently attacked it, and broken into hun- 
dreds of fragments under the pressure. A large 
part of the work of renovating this levee system 
consisted in digging and carving out these numer- 
ous imperfections in the old levee wherever they 
were detected. Of the fi\'e crevasses that have 



occurred in this district since 1884, all but one were 
„caused by concealed defects in the old levee. 

LEVEE CONSTRUCTION IN 1884. 

When arrangements Avere consummated on 
October 10th, ISS-i, for applying the $500,000 to 
the work of reconstructing the levees, the Engi- 
neer Department labored under extraordinary 
difficulties, for lack of preparation for this large 
task suddenly thrust upon it. Being without a 
single instrument, without an assistant engineer, 
without an office even, with meager information 
upon which to base estimates, grade lines, etc., all 
of these things had to be provided with great 
promptitude, and a corps of seven assistant engi- 
neers organized and distributed along the ninety odd 
miles of levee line, with proper instruments and 
instructions, to provide for all the contractors and 
sub-contractors who were hastening to occupy the 
field with their working forces. The work was 
pushed with vigor, and by March, 1885, was all 
completed in a satisfactory manner. By these 
operations all the existing gaps in the levees were 
closed, the low levees raised to a higher grade, and 
the weak places strengthened. 

Although the available fund had to be distributed 
over an extended front and fell short of the require- 
ments of the situation, a reasonably strong line of 
defense, with reference to the high water of that 
period, was secured for the entire distance, which 
so inspired the people with confidence and hope 
that the Legislature of 1886 did not hesitate to 
authorize a further issue of $400,000 of (3 per cent, 
bonds for construction purposes. The annual rev- 
enues from taxation also increased in a marked 
degree, affording a surplus of about $100,000 a 
year for application to the work of construction. 

INDUSTRIAL PROSPERITY 

The industrial conditions of the district under- 
went a great revolution; property values went up, 
and from a state of extreme depression the country 
leaped into one of industrial activity. Tliis was 
evidenced in the greatly increasing revenues from 
levee taxation. 

In one county the levee tax yielded 300 per cent, 
more in 1890 than in 1884 (with an increase in the 
tax rate from 9 to 12^ mills ad valorem). 

RESULT OF LEVEE PROTECTION 

The general result of the efforts of the present 
levee administration to protect this district from 



Past— Present— Prospective 



301 



overflow has been that a majority of the people in 
the district have seen no Mississippi river water 
since 1884, except in the streams and channels. It 
is also demonstrated that one or twO' breaks in the 
levees, under most circumstances, would produce 
only local disaster of limited extent, as the channels 
of the basin are capacious enough tO' convey away 
such a volume of water as would escape from the 
river, with but slight injury, except in the vicinity 
of the breaks. 

THE SYSTEM OF LEVEE LINES 

The levee system of this district is somewhat com- 
plicated by the discharge of the Hushpuckana drain- 
age basin into the ^Mississippi river at Sunflower 
Landing. It was impracticable, within reasonable 
limits of cost, tO' cross the twO' miles of very low 
swamp lying" along the river bank here. To pre- 
vent the escape of water into the district through 
this gap. the le^•ee from below Hushpuckana was 
extended northward along a high ridge behind the 
swamp, tO' a distance of fourteen miles above the 
lower end of the gap. It extends to above the head 
of backwater, being located from two to fixe miles 
behind the front levee. Afterwards the "\A^ard Lake 
Levee," five miles long, was built, connecting the 
front and back levees. This line was built for the 
local protection of the land between the levees. 
The total length of the levees in this district, after 
the abandonment of three miles at the lower end of 
the front line, is 120 miles. It developed, after the 
occurrence of the Rescue crevasse of 1897, that to 
abandon this three miles (lying immediately below 
it) would not materially raise the backwater plane. 

The levees are divided intO' one mile sections, 
marked off by numbered stones. 

GRADES 

The system of grades, as first adopted, was three 
feet above the flood plane of 1882. Where higher 
stages occurred in subsequent years, the grades were 
revised from time to- time to^ suit the newly developed 
conditions. Since the 1897 flood enlargements have 
been made tO' grades varying from one tO' three and 
one-half feet above its plane, according tO' the im- 
portance of the le\"ee and the amount of money 
available. It is designed to increase these enlarge- 
ments in future, bringing the levee to^ a standard 
grade to be adopted with reference to the ultimate 
high water plane developed after all of the open 
basins on the river shall have been closed. 



EFFECT OF CLOSING WHITE RIVER BASIN 

During a few years past the work of closing the 
White River Basin had been pushed by the United 
States engineers, and the 1897 flood found a con- 
tinuous barrier from Helena to Henrico — a distance 
of 78 miles. In 1893 there was still a gap of 25 
miles opposite lower Coahoma Count}-. The effect 
of this degree of contraction of the gap was to in- 
crease the flood heig'ht one foot on section 81, eleven 
miles below Friars Point, while the Cairo stage that 
year was 2.5 feet below its maximum. For some 
miles above and below the effect was felt, but was 
greatest at section 81. 

In 1897 there was a further increase of the flood 
height at section 81 to 7.1 feet above the 1882 flood. 
This difference would ha\-e been greater by at least 
two feet had there been no crevasses on White river 
front. 

It is estimated that, on section 87, the 1897 stage 
would have been about 10 feet above the 1882 stage. 
The complete closing of the St. Francis front must 
inevitably increase this water height. 

IMPROVED METHODS OF CONSTRUC- 
TION 

As. a consequence of the combination of insuffi- 
cient present resources and varying flood conditions, 
the levee systems have grown up as a system of 
patch-work, which effect is heightened by progress 
in better methods of levee construction, great ad- 
vancement having been made in this direction during 
the past dozen years in consequence of greater de- 
mands on the resisting powers of levees and a more 
determined effort than ever before made to suc- 
cessfully control the floods of the Mississippi river. 
Much of the improvement in the methods of levee 
building is due also' to the growing experience of 
engineers and a more serious purpose to study the 
subject closely. Indeed, prior to about the year 
188-4 lack of means so dominated in levee matters 
that very unscientific methods of construction and 
location were necessarily resorted to, with the in- 
evitable result of uneconomical expenditure of 
money, and levees that gzxe way under the pressure 
of every hig'h water. 

With the infusion of Government funds in recent 
3-ears, and increased means from local sources, much 
more thorough methods of construction have been 
introduced, and we now build levees to stand high 
water without breaking. 



302 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



COST OF LEVEE PROTECTION 

It is probably fortunate for the interests of levee 
protection that it could not be foreseen, a dozen 
years ago, what increasing demands would arise to 
build levees that would certainly give security from 
overflow, and to^ meet increasing" flood elevations, 
due to increasing progress in levee extension. A 
complete foreknowledge of the enormous expen- 
ditures involved, instead of a gradual realization, 
would probably have discouraged all attempts at 
beginning, whereas enough has already been accom- 
plished in this district to justify the expenditure 
made, and complete and permanent security from 
overflow is now easily within the grasp of the peo- 
ple, provided there is no relaxation in their efforts 
tmtil it is accomplished. 

COMPLETION OF THE LEVEE SYSTEM 
AND ULTIMATE RESULTS 

The work of confining the entire volume of water 
to the channel of the river will probably reach its 
completion in a few years. ^Vith this consumma- 
tion we may expect to be able to ascertain the ulti- 
mate maximum flood heights to which our levee 
systems must be adjusted for future security from 
overflow. 

STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURE 

The following is a statement of the expenditures 
of this levee district for all purposes, from the date 
of its organization to Mav 1st, 1900 : 



It should be noted that the item of "construc- 
tion" embraces, besides the "cubic yards," all extra 
work, such as clearing, grubbing", sodding, etc. Also 
that the item of "levee maintenance" includes the 
cost of a repair force, which has been at work con- 
stantly, and employed mainly in adding dirt to the 
levee where conditions were such as to make it im- 
practicable to secure measurements of this work in 
cubic yards. 

To^ have these figures would materially increase 
the aggregate shown below. A considerable expen- 
diture was made for extra work on United States 
Go^'ernment contracts, not provided for in the Gov- 
ernment specifications. 

The item "engineering expenses" embraces much 
expenditure outside of the pay received by the en- 
gineers, of a character too miscellaneous to enum- 
erate. 

Construction, 13,376,933 cubic yards. $2,496,852.90 
Levee maintenance (including some 

construction by repair force) 214,924.89 

All other expenditures 1,768,338.73 



Total expenditures by Levee Board. $4, 480,116. 52 
Total appropriations tO' this district by 

U. S. Government in same time. . . $933,750.00 
The district has issued its bonds tO' the amount 
of $1,400,000.00, the proceeds from the sale of 
which were applied to levee purposes. Of these 
bonds the sum of $323,000.00 have been purchased 
bv the Board and canceled. 





I. J. M.JAYNE, President, Washington County. 2. FRED CLARK, Bolivar County. 3. W. C. BOYD, Bolivar County. 

4. W.M.HARRIS. Issaquena County. 5. W. E. MONTGOiWERY, Secretary. 6. ABE BLUM, Washington County (Appointed 1900 ). 

7. G.T.DARDEN,Sharliey County. S. WALTER SILLERS. Attorney. 9. J. M. MONTGOMERY, Washington County i Resigned 1900.) 



304 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





C. H. WEST 
Chief Engineer 



W. C. DULANEY 
Former Collector 





GEO. M. HELM 
Former Ciiief Engineer 



ROBERT SOMERVILLE 
Assistant Ciiief Engineer 



OF THE MISSISSIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT 



Past— Present— Prospective 



305 



BRIEF HISTORY OF LEVEE BUILDING IN THE MISSIS- 
SIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT 



By C. H. west 



The earliest levee building in this district was 
done by the planters living along the immediate 
river front; usuall}^ each planter did the work on 
the front of his own place, but occasionally several 
united together in building' some levee that was of 
mutual benefit. 

Levee building in those early days was, of 
course, done in a very crude manner. The first 
levee built in the district was in 1844, not far below 
the present city of Greenville. It was not until 
about 1855 that any organized effort was made to 
build levees: About that time, the County Boards 
of Supervisors took up the matter in their respec- 
tive counties and issued warrants to pay for work 
done. The Count}^ Surveyor was sometimes em- 
ployed to run out a line along which the embank- 
ment was to be built, but no engineer was employed 
to layout or supervise the construction of the work. 
The first Levee Board was organized in 1858. This 
Board assumed the debts of the Local County 
Boards, organized an engineer force, and for the 
first time was there any system about the loca- 
tion and building of levees in this district. James 
L. Alcorn was the President, and Minor Meri- 
wether the Chief Engineer of this Board. This 
Board ceased operations in 1861, and during the 
four years following no effort was made to keep up 
the levees, and at the close of the civil war, owing 
to crevasses and other causes, the levees had de- 
teriorated to such an extent that the country was 
without protection from the floods of even inoder- 
ate high waters. The amount of work done, or 
money expended for levees up to this time is not 
certainly known; it was considerable, however, and 
altogether probabh' reached nearly a million dol- 
lars. 

The present Levee Board, known as the Board 
of Mississippi Levee Commissioners, was organ- 
ized in 1865. The front of the district now extends 
from the Coahoma-Bolivar County line to a point 
in Warren County, just above the mouth of the 
Yazoo River. The length of the river front is 
about 230 miles, and the length of the present con- 



trolling levee line 190 miles. The territory subject 
to taxation embraces Bolivar, Washington, Issa- 
quena, Sharkey and a small part of Warren Coun- 
ties, with an area of 3,593 square miles. The pres- 
ent gross revenues of the Board amount to about 
$300,000 annually. The rate of taxation is five 
cents per acre on all land, five cents on every lot 
in cities and incorporated towns, five mills ad va- 
lorem on the assessed value of all property real and 
personal, and one ($1) dollar per bale on cotton. 
The amount expended by the Board from 1865 to 
July, 1882, amounted to $3,557,918.47. The great 
flood of 1882 ran over the levees and swept them 
away in many places, but instead of disheartening 
the people it only aroused them to the necessity of 
greater efforts on their own part and an appeal to 
the general government for assistance in giving 
protection from the ravages of the great river. 
Thus it will be seen that the lessons taught by this 
flood marks the beginning of a new era in levee 
building. 

From surveys made just after the disastrous 
flood of 1882, it was estimated that the earthwork 
in the levee then existing amounted to a little over 
six million (6,000,000) cubic yards. Its height 
averaged about seven feet, but the embankment 
was very irregular in grade and section, and the 
integrity of the line broken in many places by 
yawning gaps caused by the recent crevasses. A 
discouraging- outlook indeed for a people who had 
just suft'ered such a sweeping loss from the ravages 
of the river, and whose only hope for protection 
from future floods depended upon levees; but they 
were not disheartened, and in July, before the wa- 
ters had receded from the land, delegates from all 
over the Delta assembled in convention at Green- 
ville to devise ways and means for repairing and 
building up the levees to give better protection. 

The rate of taxation already burdensome was 
increased, authority was asked of the State Legis- 
lature to issue bonds, and an appeal made to the 
general Government for assistance. Work was 
soon begun in earnest, and has never abated for a 



306 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ■ 



season since, and the levees have gradually grown 
in height and strength until they are now five 
times the volume they were in 1S83. In 1884 there 
was one crevasse at Hughes, forty miles below the 
upper end of the district, and flooded only a hm- 
ited portion of the territory. After this, each suc- 
cessive hig-h water was held until 1890, when the 
levee gave way at Five Points, Catfish Point, 
Eastern, Huntington, Offuts and Skipwith, inun- 
dating the greater portion of the district. Again 
in 1891 there occurred one crevasse at Stella. After 
this there were no more crevasses until the great 
flood of 1897, when the levees were overtopped by 
the water and gave way in five places, viz. : Sledges, 
Stokes, Stops, Deerfield and Promised Land, and 
again nearly the entire Delta was flooded. The 
lessons learned from the high water of 1890 and 
1891 were of great value, in teaching the necessity 
of greater care in preparing the foundations and 
in methods of constructing the levees, and from 



Larjiisi^e 



that time may be dated the true beginning of levee 
construction according to scientific principles. 

The entire fine of levee of the district now has a 
grade three feet above the flood plane of 1897, the 
highest past water; the crown width is eight feet, 
and the slopes "one on three" on each side, and 
wherever the height exceeds ten feet the section 
is reinforced by a banquette on the land side of the 
levee. This banquette usually begins about eight 
feet below the top of the levee and is twenty feet 
wide with a slope downward from the levee of "one 
or ten" for twenty feet, and then "one on four" to 
the bottom, thus: 

In some localities the height of the levee is thirty 
feet, and over the highest ground not less than ten 
feet, and will average fifteen feet over the entire 
length of the line. 

The present levee, with its uniform section and 
smooth, well sodded slopes, bears but little re- 
semblance to the levees of a few years ago. From 



Hlvefstel^ 




7Trr77^77777777777777-r7rT77777T77-rrm77r77 



1865 to July, 1900, this Levee Board has expended 
$9,326,689.47, of which $5,768,771 was expended 
since July, 1882. The first assistance from the 
United States was in 1882, and since then the total 
expended by the Government for levees in this dis- 
trict amounts to $2,861,670.84. 

The greatest hindrance to the building up of a 
safe and permanent line of levee in this district has 
been the rapidly caving banks in many of the river 
bends. From this cause, principally, 135 miles, or 
over seventy per cent of the present length of the 
levee line of the district has been abandoned in the 
past eighteen years. In recent years, the policy 
has been adopted of locating the levees at a greater 
distance from the river bank than was formerly the 
practice, and in some places of revetting the banks 
to prevent the caving, where an expensive system 
of levee was in jeopardy. 

Comparing the levees of to-day with the con- 
ditions that existed a few years ago gives great en- 
couragement to continue the work until a safe and 
permanent line has been completed. That this can 
be done is not doubted in the least by those who 
have been most intimately connected with the de- 
velopment of the system, and they confidently look 



to the accomplishment of this end in the near fu- 
ture. The system has already reached the stage 
that insures protection from all but the extreme 
floods, and it is estimated that three feet more in 
height, with a relative strengthening of the base, 
will give protection from any flood that may be ex- 
pected in the future. 

There yet remains much more to be done before 
the levees have been brought to the stag"e of devel- 
opment just indicated, but the great results that will 
follow are more than worth the effort, for the pos- 
sibilities of this fertile valley, when once assured of 
protection from devastation by floods, can scarcely 
be estimated. 

With the uncertain protection that has been and 
is now afforded, the improvements throughout the 
valley have been remarkably rapid, and with the 
same measure of protection, the development will 
doubtless continue as in the past: But with a levee 
system that will give certain assurance of protec- 
tion from overflow, the advance and development 
in every line of industry that will at once take place 
throughout the Yazoo-Delta will be beyond that of 
any other territory of like area in the past histoiy 
of the United States. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



307 





HON. A. H. LONGINO 
Governor of Mississippi 



R. W. MILLSAPS 





THE LATE WILLIAM G. YERGER 



JOHN L. HEBRON, JR. 




ST. FRANCIS LEVEE BOARD 



IN MISSOURI 



HINA C. SCHULT 



Past— Present— Prospective 



309 



THE ST. FRANCIS LEVEE DISTRICT OF MISSOURI 



By HINA C. SCHULT 



By a special act of the Legislature of the State 
of Missouri, approved March 21, 1893, "All that , 
part or area of the State of iMissouri known as a 
part of the St. Francis Basin, lying in the Counties 
of Dunklin, New Madrid and Pemiscot, subject to 
inundation from the Mississippi river, including all 
that area of territory which has heretofore at any 
time, either directly or indirectly, been overflowed 
by the waters from the Mississippi river" w^as 
formed into^ a Levee District. The act provided 
for the appointment of three persons, land holders 
of each County, as a Board of Directors, and 
named William Petty, Reuben Chapman, and John 
Black, of the County of Dunklin, John J. Williams, 
J. F. Girvin, and Alphonso DeLisle, of the County 
of New Madrid, and John A. Cunningham, Joseph 
Brasher and George W. Carleton, of the County of 
Pemiscot as the first Board of Directors. These 
Directors were appointed for a term of one, two 
and three years, respectively, in the order in which 
they are named, and their successors to be appoint- 
ed by the Governor of the State on the first 
Monday in March in each year succeeding the year 
1893. George AV. Carleton died on the 31st day of 
March, 1893, and Hina C. Schult was appointed to 
fill the vacancy. 

The act further provided "That said Board of 
Levee Directors shall have power and it is hereby 
made their duty, to Levee the St. Francis front in 
the Counties herein named in this State, and to 
protect and maintain the same in such effective 
condition as honest, able and energetic effort on 
their part may attain, by building, repairing and 
raising Levees on the right bank of the Mississippi 
river, or such other places as the said board may 
select; shall have power to employ all agents 
necessaiw to the execution of their duty; shall 
determine the base, crown, height, slopes and 
grades of the Levee, and make all needful regula- 
tions and do- all acts in their opinion necessary to 
secure the Levee District under their charge from 
overflow by the waters of the Mississippi river; to 



assess and levy annually a tax, not exceeding five 
per cent of the increased value or betterment esti- 
mated to accrue from protection given against 
floods from the Mississippi river by said Levee, on 
all lands within said Levee District; shall call a 
meeting of the land owners in each of the respec- 
tive Counties within said Levee District in each 
County, etc., at which time the proposition to levy 
said annual assessments shall be submitted tO' said 
land owners, and if a two-thirds majority of the 
land owners in such Levee District who appear at 
such meeting shall vote for such assessment, it 
shall then l3e the duty of said Board of Directors 
to levy annually said tax," etc. 

The total number of acres of land in the District, 
subject to overflow from the Mississippi river is as 
follows: Dunklin County, 42,848 acres; New Mad- 
rid County, 135,747 acres; Pemiscot County, 269,- 
380 acres. The lands subject to- overflow in New 
Madrid County are in the South pait of the Coun- 
ty, and the lands in Dunklin County also are in the 
South part of that. County (Dunklin County lying 
west of Pemiscot County), and nearly all the land 
in Pemiscot County was subject to inundation by 
the floods of the Mississippi river. The distance 
or length of the Levee commencing at the high 
land, at or near Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, to the State 
line dividing the States of Arkansas and Missouri 
is about forty-seven miles, about seven miles of 
said Levee being in New Madrid County and about 
forty miles in Pemiscot County. 

The Board of Directors met at New Madrid, 
Missouri, on March 29, 1893, for the purpose of 
organization. The following officers were elected: 
Dr. J. J. AA'illiams, President; W. D. Schult, Sec- 
retaiy; John A. Cunningham, Treasurer; and 
Capt. H. N. Pharr, Chief Engineer. The Assessors 
and Collectors for the various Counties were also 
appointed, and Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, was selected 
as the domicile of the Board as provided by law. 

At the time of the enactment of the special law 
creating the St. Francis Levee District of Missouri, 



310 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



a similar law was passed by the State of Arkansas, 
creating the St. Francis Levee District of Arkan- 
sas, which comprised all that territory in the St. 
Francis Basin in Arkansas commencing at the 
State line, dividing the States of Missomi and 
Arkansas, and running South to the mouth of the 
St. Francis i"iver. Both the Missouri and Ai'kansas 
law provided for the consolidation of the two Dis- 
tricts if possible. 

In the year 1892, the Mississippi River Commis- 
sion set apart the sum of $264,000 for the Lower 
St. Francis Levee District — said District com- 
mencing- at the high lands at Pt. Pleasant, Mis- 
souri, and thence south to the mouth of the St. 
Francis river in Arkansas, a distance of 210 miles 
— and to be expended as follows: $88,000 in the 
year 1893; $88,000 in the year 1894; and $88,000 
in the year 1895. The Commission set apart this 
money as an inducement to the people of Arkansas 
and Missouri to organize this territory' intO' levee 
districts and to assist them in commencing the 
building of levees. This action of the Commission 
was directly the cause of the organization of these 
twO' levee districts in Missoiiri. 

In May, 1893, the two Levee Boards of Missouri 
and Arkansas met at ,West Memphis, Ark., for the 
purpose of discussing the consolidation of the two 
districts, to determine where the first allotment of 
$88,000 should be spent; the Government Engi- 
neer in charge of the lower St. Francis Levee Dis- 
trict having expressed a willingness to expend this 
money either in Missouri or Arkansas as requested 
by the two Boards in joint meeting. It was decided 
at this meeting that the most important work was 
the closing of the gap' between Bear Bayou, in 
Arkansas, and Pt. Pleasant in Missouri. The work 
was advertised and Capt. Roessler on the day the 
contracts were to^ be let arrived at Pt. Pleasant. 

Prior tO' letting the contract, he discovered that 
the right-of-way through some of the lands through 
which the levee would run could not be obtained. 
Some land owners refused to give the right-of-way, 
claiming that the Government ought to pay them 
for the same. The contract was let, however, con- 
ditional that the right-of-way be secured free of 
cost to the Government by the Board of Directors 
of the Missouri District. The Board used every 
effort tOi induce these people to give the right-of- 
way, but they absolutely refused. Right here it is 
but just to say that this refusal cost the people 
living in the St. Francis District of Missouri nearly 



$150,000, for it is safe to say that had the Govern- 
ment been permitted to expend the first allotment 
of $88,000 in building the levee south from Pt. 
Pleasant, that the work Vi"ould have been made 
continuous and the District would have received 
so much of the other two allotments of $88,000 
each to have completed the levee to- the State line. 
Owing to the failure to procure the right-of-way, 
Capt. Roessler withdrew the contract and pro- 
ceeded to advertise for bids to construct the levee 
from Bear Bayou,, Arkansas, running north. Bear 
Bayou, we should have stated, is eighteen miles 
south of the Missouri and Arkansas State line. 

Losing this money convinced the people of Pem- 
iscot County that they must put their shoulders to^ 
the wheel. It convinced them that they could not 
get any Government aid, and if they got a levee 
they would have to. build it. All of our people 
realizing the importance of levee protection were 
anxious to^ go to work. They knew that without 
a levee the country would have to be abandoned 
and they would be compelled to leave their little 
homes, but that with levee protection our district 
would be the garden spot of southeast Missouri. 

The Levee Board met on the 30th day of May, 
1893, and made an order submitting to the land 
holders of the district the question of voting a two 
per cent tax on the $1.00 betterment on all lands in 
the district. This was carried by an almost unani- 
mous vote, and the first contracts were let October 
10th, 1893. The prices averaged from twelve to 
fifteen cents per cubic yard, which was a great sur- 
prise to the members of the Levee Board, as it was 
thought that as the contractors could be paid only 
in Scrip the prices would be higher and the bidders 
few. There were over two hundred bidders. The 
bidders were willing to go tO' work at once and take 
levee Scrip for pay, but were unable tO' buy scrap- 
ers. The Levee Board succeeded in buying $300,- 
000 worth on a credit. These were turned over to 
the contractors. Nearly all of our people who failed 
to get contracts at once began to sub-contract. By 
the 20th of October between two hundred and 
three hundred teams were at work on the levee in 
Pemiscot and New Madrid Counties. Work was 
continued in proper season until October the fol- 
lowing year. 

An effort was made tO' pay off the Scrip. This 
was not successful, however. In fact an opinion 
rendered on the legality of the bond issue paid for 
bv the individual members of the Board themselves 



Past— Present— Prospective 



311 



was that the Board of Directors of the St. Francis 
District of Missouri could not legally issue bonds. 
But the contractors finished tfie work except in a 
very few places. The total length of the levee thus 
put up was twenty-seven miles, costing $117,642. 

So it will be seen that while the people in Pemis- 
cot County, during the years 1S93 and 1891, built 
twenty-eight miles of levee for which they received 
$117,642 in levee Scrip, which could not be sold 
for more than fifty cents on the dollar, our neigh- 
bor, the Arkansas District, had their levee built 
from near Bayou, Arkansas, to the State line, a 
distance of eighteen miles, by the Government at 
a cost of over one hundred and fifty thousand 
dollars. 

In Auarust, 1894, the members of the levee board 
from the Counties of New Madrid and Pemiscot 
went tO' Memphis, Tennessee, to urge upon Capt. 
Roessler the necessity of expending the last allot- 
ment of $88,000 of Government money in the State 
of Missouri. After discussing the matter thor- 
oughly with Capt. Roessler, the members of the 
board, being ably assisted by the late Capt. H. N. 
Pharr, who was then the Chief Engineer for both 
the Missouri and Arkansas Districts, Capt. Roess- 
ler agreed to spend the $88,000 in Missouri. 

Thirteen miles of levee were built in two^ con- 
tracts, being finahy finished in the Spring of 1895. 
We were left with several miles of unfinished work 
along our line estimated at about 70,000 cubic 
yards. 

The Legislature of the State of Missouri, in the 
year 1895, appropriated the sum of twenty thou- 
sand dollars to the St. Francis Levee District of 
Missouri, for the purpose of closing up these gaps 
and building the Tyler gap and the Gayoso gap. 
Contracts were let to do this work, or sO' much 
thereof as could be done with the twenty thousand 
dollars. The amount of twenty thousand dollars 
was not sufficient to do the work, and through the 
earnest efforts of the late Capt. H. N. Pharr the 
Board succeeded in procuring an additional five 
thousand dollars from the then Government Engi- 
neer, Capt. Fitch, who had succeeded Capt. Roess- 
ler, being a part of the balance on hand of the 
second allotment of $88,000 made to Arkansas. 
With this twenty thousand dollars from the State, 
the five thousand dollars received from the Govern- 
ment and some twenty or twentj-five thousand 
dollars of Levee Script issued by the Board, the 
Levee Board succeeded, in the spring of 1896, in 



finishing the levee from the high lands at Pt. 
Pleasant, Missouri, to the State line dividing the 
States of Missouri and Arkansas. 

Since the fall of 1893 the people of Dunklin 
County, claiming that their lands were overflowed 
from the St. Francis River and not from the i\Iisis- 
sippi River, have refused to pay levee taxes, and 
the members of the Board from that County with- 
drew or failed to attend any meetings of the levee 
Board. The Board of Dii-ectors of the St. Francis 
Levee District of Missouri is now composed of 
William H. Huft'man, President; Hina C. Schult, 
Secretary; Alphonso DeLisle, Treasurer; John A. 
Cunningham, Dr. J. J. Williams and Jesse DeLisle. 

The total cost, including all incidental expenses 
for building the levee from Pt. Pleasant to the 
State line, is about $250,000. This levee, when 
completed, in 1896, had an average height of eight 
feet with a slope of six to one with eight feet added, 
and an eight feet crown, with a base of fifty-two 
feet. In 1897 the levee broke about one mile below 
the City of Caruthersville, and also broke at Tyler 
and Cottonwood Pt., Missouri. The Government 
came to our assistance and rebuilt these breaks for 
us in the fall of that year, n 1898 the Government 
spent about $17,000 in strengthening the levees in 
Pemiscot County. In 1897 and the spring of 1898, 
a portion of the levee at Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, 
caved into the river. This is being rebuilt by the 
Government. 

In addition to this, the Government has expend- 
ed about thirty thousand dollars in strengthening 
the levee in Pemiscot County from a point at or 
near Gayoso to the State line. This gives Pemiscot 
and New Madrid Counties a levee that is fully two 
and one-half feet above the point reached by the 
flood of 1897, and absolutely insures protection 
from inundation by the Mississippi River. 

Too much credit for the splendid levee protec- 
tion that we are enjoying to-day cannot be given 
to the late Capt. H. N. Pharr, the Chief Engineer 
of both the Missouri and Arkansas Levee Districts. 
It was through the earnest efforts of Capt. Pharr 
that our people became interested in the subject of 
levees. As far back as the year 1891, Capt. Pharr 
visited Pemiscot and New Madrid Counties and 
urged the people to take an interest in the matter of 
levee building. He saw that by the building of 
levees along the river front through Missouri and 
Arkansas, the lands denominated as "Swamp 
lands" could be reclaimed and made the finest agri- 
cultural lands in the world. 



314 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 




k&ss.. 




:>a^7'^y^^i- v-^-^^i-^-^ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



315 



BRIEF HISTORY OF LEVEES IN THE LOWER 
ST. FRANCIS LEVEE DISTRICT. 



By harry N. PHARR, Chief Engineer St. Francis Levee Board 



Office of the St. Francis Levee Board, 

West Memphis, Oct. 37th, 1900. 

The Lower St. Francis Levee District is that 
part of the St. Francis Basin lying between the 
Mississippi River and Crowley's Ridge and ex- 
tending from the highlands of Big Prairie below- 
New Madrid to the mouth of the St. Francis River, 
including all of Mississippi and Crittenden counties 
and parts of Craighead, Poinsett, Cross, St. 
Francis, Lee and Phillips counties in Arkansas, 
and all of Pemiscot and parts of New Madrid and 
Dunklin counties in Missouri. The total area of 
the district is 3,490 square miles. Its length by 
river is about 218 miles; its average width is about 
25 miles. 

The present state organizations were perfected 
in 1893 and are composed of the Independent 
Levee Boards of the St. Francis Levee District of 
Arkansas and the St. Francis Levee District in 
Missouri, each board being composed of three di- 
rectors from each county in the district. 

At the time of organization the overflows of 
the previous several 3'ears had been very destruc- 
tive to the levees and the property in the districts, 
especially those of 1892 and 1893. At this time 
there existed local protection for a slight area in 
the vicinity of Osceola afforded by a levee about 22 
miles long extending from Bear Bayou to Craig- 
head Pt., built by the U. S. Government to improve 
the Mississippi River in 1886 and 1S87. 

Above and below this levee the water was prac- 
tically free to escape over the banks into the low 
lands of the basin. The remnants of the old state 
levee, long since abandoned, which remained here 
and there along the whole front of the district, 
formed no barrier to and retarded but little the 
general escape of flood water over the bank. 

This levee was first constructed by a state organ- 
ization which was created in 1850 immediately 
after the passag"e by Congress of the la^w donating 



the swamp lands to the State for levee and drain- 
age purposes. A "Board of Swamp Land Com- 
missioners"' was organized to fix the price of the 
o\-erflowed lands, to district the State, to deter- 
mine the necessary levees and drains and to let out 
the contracts to the lowest and best bidders. Under 
this organization a system of levees was construct- 
ed, the few previoush' constructed private levees 
being used where possible and absorbed as part of 
the system. In ordinary years the entire St. 
Francis Basin was protected from Mississippi River 
floodwater. 

From the Delta survey in the autumn of 1857 
and the winter of 1858 the following actual condi- 
tion of the levee was found to exist: 

"From the highlands below New Madrid to the 
northern boundary of Arkansas the levees were 
nearly completed. Between the northern bound- 
ary of Arkansas and Osceola there were about 2-i 
miles of unfinished levees. In the bend below 
Osceola was a gap 1-J miles long. Opposite Island 
34 was another gap I-2- miles long. Between 
Islands 36 and 37 was another 2-2- miles long. At 
the foot of Island 37 was another 4 miles long. At 
the foot of Island 39 was another li miles long. At 
the foot of Island 41 was another 3-10 mile long. 
Six miles below Memphis was another 1-J- miles 
long. In Council Bend, near Island 53, was an- 
other 3 miles long". At Walnut Bend, near Island 
56. was another 1 mile long. The above list in- 
cludes the whole St. Francis bottom. By summing 
up the dift'erent gaps it will be found that they 
were about 25 miles in length. 

"It would be a great error to imagine that the 
bottom was securely leveed with the exception of 
these breaks. The levees had all been iiiade since 
the flood of 1851 and consequently had never been 
tested. They were much too low, hardly averag- 
ing three feet in height, although some of them 
across old bavous were of enormous size, as for 




JOHN B. DRIVER, President 'centerl, Mississippi Coun:y. 1. 

3. E. L. WESTBROOK, Craighead County. 4. 

6. T. H. MAGEE, Lee County. 7. 

9. S. A. MARTIN, Crittenden County. II. 

13. JAMES FUSSELL, St. Francis County. 14. 

16. L. W. GOSNELL, Mississippi County. 17. 



W. N. STRAUB, Phillips County. 2. 

J. T. FULLER, Poinsett County. S. 

ADDISON HARRIS, Poinsett County. 8. 

L. A. FITZPATRICK, Phillips County. 12. 

W. C. DEWEY, Craighead County. 15. 

R. D. GRIFFIS, Lee County. 18. 



H. P. RODGERS, Lee County. 
J. A. EMERICH, Poinsett County. 
FRANK W. DE ROSSETT, St. Francis County. 
JAMES LE VESQUE. Cross County. 
J. M. WARD, Mississippi, County. 
O. N. KILLOUGH, Cross County. 



ST. FRANCIS LEVEE BOARD IN ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



317 



instance a short one near the northern boundary 
of Crittenden county, which was reported to be 40 
feet high, 40 feet wide at the top, and 320 feet wide 
at the bottom. Generally their cross-section was 
much too small and upon the whole they were 
quite inadequate to effect the object for which they 
were intended." 

See Humphrey and Abbot Report, 1861. 

The Board of Swamp Land Commissioners was 
abolished in December, 1856. Another levee act 
was passed and approved in January, 1857. The 
Helena District, embracing the counties along- the 
Mississippi River, had already expended its quota 
of swamp lands and some of the counties were 
therefore making their own levee laws. There 
were seven swamp land districts in Arkansas. 
Within the St. Francis District, organizations ex- 
isted in Crittenden and Mississippi counties and 10 
<:ents per acre, on cultivated land, was levied for 
levee purposes. The Boards in each county were 
composed of three resident land owners. 

From 1851 to 1858 there was no considerable 
overflow; but in the April rise of the latter year 
several breaks occurred in the levees along the St. 
Francis front and the maximum rise in June of the 
same year "washed away miles of the insignificant 
levees along the St. Francis front and poured rap- 
idly into the bottom lands of that river which were 
.already deeply overflowed from heavy rains and 
from the crevasses of the April rise. So small was 
the actual reservoir capacity of that region that 
the channels of the six large bayous and the St. 
Francis itself were insufficient to give waterway to 
the flood returning to the Mississippi. For miles 
above Stirling it poured over the banks them- 
selves, washing" the remains of the levees into the 
river." 

See Humphrey and Abbot Report, 1861. 

Another flood of about equal height occurred 
in March of the following year and found condi- 
tions as the previous flood had left them. 

The District had not recovered from the effect 



of these floods at the outbreak of the Civil War, 
and with the exception of levees constructed by 
individuals none had been built and no organiza- 
tion existed until the present organization in 1893, 
when the conditions were as has been stated. 

Under the present organizations the tax of four 
cents per acre is levied on all lands within the dis- 
tricts. With this, together with the lands donated 
by the State of Arkansas to the District for levee 
purposes the Arkansas Board has derived an in- 
come in excess of $100,000.00 a year, and the Mis- 
souri Board an income of about $20,000.00 a year. 

Since 1893 the United States Government, 
throug"h the Mississippi River Commission, has 
made yearly allotments to assist the Boards in 
levee construction. 

At the close of the present fiscal 3'ear there will 
have been constructed a continuous line of stand- 
ard levee of 156 miles, extending from the high- 
lands below New Madrid to Scanlan's Landing, 
Arkansas, about 20 miles below Memphis. There 
has also been constructed 17 miles in Lee county, 
Arkansas, extending- from Bledsoe to Walnut Bend 
Landing, and three large drainage canals have 
been cut. 

This has been done at a cost to the Arkansas 
Board of $1,215,000.00. to the United States Gov- 
ernment of $709,284.00, and to the Missouri Board 
of about $200,000.00, making a total expenditure 
of $2,124,284.00. 

There yet remains to be constructed the gap of 
26 miles from Scanlan's Landing to Bledsoe, esti- 
mated to cost $612,000,00; and 12 miles from Wal- 
nut Bend to the mouth of the St. Francis River, 
estimated to cost $350,000.00. Also several large 
drainage canals to cost $200,000.00. The enlarge- 
ment of the levees already constructed, to the Mis- 
sissippi River Commission grade, is estimated to 
cost $1,260,000.00. This total of $2,422,000.00 is 
the amount estimated as necessary at the end of 
the present fiscal year for the completion of the 
lower St. Francis Levees. 



318 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




E. C. TOLLINGER 



Past— Present— Prospective 



319 



THE LEVEES IN THE UPPER TENSAS DISTRICT 

IN ARKANSAS 



By E. C. TOLLINGER, U. S. Assistant Engineer 



About all the information we have about the 
earlier construction of these levees is found in 
Humphreys & Abbot's Reports, Henson's Book 
on Levees (published in 1858), in the Federal Gov- 
ernment grants of 1848 and 1850, and the several 
Acts of Arkansas, on file at Little Rock. 

The earliest settlements were made on high 
points along the banks where cut-offs had oc- 
curred. Point Chicot was one of these and about 
the highest land in that section, and from Colum- 
bia to Lakeport the overflow was little then (about 
1843); the planters were protected by a small levee 
in front, with side levees running- back into the 
sv^-amp. These levees were built by the land own- 
ers. This method was general and was adopted on 
both sides of the river and afforded partial pro- 
tection except during great floods. 

Better protection was gradually secured as the 
countr}' developed b}' securing a more efficient 
local organization, by aid from the State, and a 
small amount of assistance in the beginning from 
the Federal Government. 

Humphreys and Abbott state that in 1844 there 
existed a continuous line of levees from the mouth 
of the Arkansas River to New Orleans; many of 
these must have been mere ridges thrown up with 
a plow, and in a few instances the high points had 
no levees. 

The levees generally were small except where 
they crossed depressions and bayous. It is not 
probable that these conformed to any particular 
standard, but were generally one foot above high 
water, and five feet base for one in height. The 
high water of 1844 broke the levees in many places 
and bankrupted many of the planters, numbers of 
them leaving- the country with their negroes for 
Texas from this cause. 

Under the provisions of the "Swamp Land Act" 



of 1852, a systematic building of levees was again 
commenced; the recjuirements of the law were, a 
levee thirty inches above the highest known water, 
seven feet base to one in height, and as many feet 
crown as the levee was higdi. From 1852 to 1858 
there was much levee work done, and the levee was 
put in fairly good condition from the mouth of the 
Arkansas to New Orleans. The line constructed at 
this time crossed Cypress Creek about If miles 
north of Lucca Landing; the drainage of Cypress 
Creek being down Opossum Fork for a short 
period. During 1858 there occurred a flood which 
washed away man}' miles of levees, and from this 
time organized effort to maintain the line was 
abandoned for several years, other crevasses and 
caving increasing the gaps, leaving the system in 
a ragged and broken condition. 

After the Civil War, there was during the first 
few years some individual effort made to keep up 
portions of the levee, but no definite data of this 
can be obtained. The Chicot County Levee Board 
was organized in 1SS6, and the work of closing 
the crevasses and repairing and enlarging the 
levees began. This work was paid for by a county 
tax, and voluntary contributions from citizens. 

About this time the Federal Government began 
assisting in the work and built the line from Boggy 
Bayou to Matthews Bend, along- which front the 
old line had caved into the river. The levee work 
done in 1886 and 1887 gave a continuous line from 
the Amos Bayou Ridge to the Louisiana line, 
about eighty-six miles. This line had variable 
slopes, crown and grade line, and successfully re- 
sisted the high water of 1887. 

Little or no effort was made to clear or grub the 
ground occupied by the levee until about 1889, the 
former practice being to cut the trees off at or 
about two feet above the ground, only a few feet 




CHICOT COUNTY, ARK., 
FORMING CHICOT 
LEVEE DISTRICT 



Past— Present— Prospective 



321 



of berm being- left on either side and earth being 
procured at tlie most convenient place without re- 
gard to depth of borrow pits. 

The highest part of Lower Leland was not 
leveed until 1891-92. 

Little of the old construction from 1843 to 1860 
now forms a part of the controlling lines; it is gener- 
ally on the outside of the controlling line, and much 
of it has caved into the river, or has been aban- 
doned because of faulty construction. 

The levees constructed in my sub-district from 
1882 to 1890, when not exposed to caving banks, 
were given 3 to 1 slopes, crown four to eight feet 
and grade two feet above the highest known water. 

The old construction at its best, and this only 
in very exceptional cases, was 5 to 1 front and 3 to 
1 back slope, with a ten foot crown, the major por- 
tion of the work being of no regular standard. 

Since the systematic construction of the levees 
has been undertaken in Arkansas by the United 
States, the section used has been a standard one of 
slopes 3 to 1, crown eight feet, and grade three 
feet above the highest known water; exceptions to 
this standard being made in favor of one as much 
greater as the occasion demanded in the crossing 
of water courses, old lake beds, etc. A very careful 
and thorough revision of the methods of construc- 
tion has taken place, so those now obtaining are as 
close as possible to the best practice in the con- 
struction of earthen dams. Since these changes 
there has been no break in levees thus constructed. 

This has practically given the Upper Tensas 
District in Arkansas immunity from overflow since 
1894, except from a small break in the Amos 
Bayou levee in 1897, which damaged only the up- 
per end of this district, but did considerable dam- 
age to the Tensas Basin country in Louisiana. 

This would indicate that the section for levees 
now in use is approaching, with proper construc- 
tion, the correct one, and that the increase of this 
section to a point sufficiently great to meet the 
increased height of the flood line expected from the 
closing in of the basins above will solve the prob- 
lem, after which a systematic protection of the 
banks should be undertaken to avoid the destruc- 



tion of those sections exposed to caving. This 
should be done now in many places, where the con- 
struction of revetment would be cheaper than the 
renewal of existing works, to say nothing of the 
property saving incidental. 

We now know by actual experience, that pure 
earthen dams built without cover of masonry, pud- 
dle or other material, with slopes of five to one and 
crowns of ten feet, will hold fifty feet or more of 
water, provided they are well constructed and on a 
good foundation. 

It is to my mind impracticable to secure from 
the United States, or any other source, sufficient 
funds with which to complete a permanent line of 
levees, so long as local interests are allowed to in- 
fluence their location. The question of damages to 
the property interests locally affected should be 
disposed of by legislation in all of the States, such 
as would tend toward the securing of more per- 
manent locations, at a more reasonable cost. As 
the cost of rights of way is crippling the local 
Boards, and in many instances causes, from lack of 
means, locations known to be injudicious. 

LOUISIANA-TENSAS BASIN 

Having only been in charge of this portion of the 
district about two years, I am not familiar with the 
early history of levee building in it, but it seems to 
have been practically the same as in Arkansas, ex- 
cept that a better and more complete system has 
been enjoyed, since 1884, owing to the policyof the 
State Government in employing the convicts in the 
erection of the levees (as an aid to the contract sys- 
tem), and the fact that the area of cultivated land, 
affected by overflows, is veiy much greater than in 
the Arkansas portion of the district, which has af- 
forded a greater tax producing ability. 

I forward herewith a series of diagrams which 
explain themselves, showing old sections and pres- 
ent sections in use for levee construction, the com- 
parison of which will readily show the inadequacy 
of the first efforts at protection from floods as com- 
pared with those now in use and proven to be suc- 
cessful so far as completed to the required standard. 



322 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



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Past— Present— Prospective 



323 



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Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




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,t:<?^' -s^ 



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R. N)C. SMITH 



GEO. R. LACY 





,S||["*** 



X. O. PINDALL 
Attorney 



DESHA (ARK.) LEVEE BOARD 
Photograph could not be had of Capt. J. M. Whitehill, President. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



325 



HISTORY OF LEVEE BUILDING ON THE DESHA 

COUNTY FRONT 



By CAPT. J. M. WHITEHILL 



My experience on the Mississippi River in con- 
nection with the levee matters dates back to 1870, 
when I estabhshed a coal business at Arkansas 
City, which had just been laid out. About this 
time a railroad company was organized to build a 
road from Eunice to- Monticello and one from Chi- 
cora to Pine Bluff, one terminus being four miles 
below and the other six miles above us. The com- 
pany tried to buy Arkansas City plantation, but 
could not secure it and bought instead Chicot plan- 
tation on a caving bank. Our people hoped and 
expected this company to build a levee on which 
their road should run. There was also negotia- 
tions with the people of the Tensas Basin levee 
district in Louisiana to secure an organization 
which would build levees in Arkansas to protect 
their country from overflows leaving' the river at 
the head of Tensas Basin. 

The railroad company and the levee interest ob- 
tained a bill from the Legislature authorizing" the 
issuance of bonds for $15,000 per mile to build this 
levee mentioned on which their track should be 
laid. They pretended to build a levee, sold their 
bonds, leaving the counties of Desha and Chicot 
saddled with a debt of $200,000 with no railroad 
and no levee. The wrecking of the scheme was 
hastened by yellow fever and cholera which wiped 
out the town of Chicot. 

The levee agitation was continued by Col. G. W. 
Sapington and others, but never was accomphshed 
until 1883, when a subscription fund of $47,000 
was raised. The State of Louisiana contributed 
$25,000 of this of the State funds. The Tensas 
Basin district had no power at that time to build 
levees in Arkansas. At that time I became Presi- 
dent of the Desha levee district. Contracts were 
let and the $47,000 was expended. The water 
came up and the Mississippi River Commission 
gave us $10,000 to hold what levee we had, which, 
however, partly washed away. 

In the summer of 1S84 we resumed the work 



with renewed vigor to raise the le\-ee a grade of one 
foot above the 1882 flood. 

Major Starling, the engineer, and myself, ob- 
tained our high-water mark from the trees. Right 
here I will say that our present grade of three feet 
above the 1897 water is at least eight feet higher 
than the marks which we used in 1884. To ac- 
complish this increased re-building, which involved 
a total of 300,000 yards, a subscription of $50,000 
was raised, the Commission, through Captain Ros- 
sell, agreeing to contribute $25,000, provided we 
could raise the balance to finish the work and give 
good bond to complete it. After canvassing the 
situation we found no contractor willing to bid a 
reasonable price and take a subscription list for 
pay. 

Major John D. Adams and myself, being large 
land owners, oi'ganized with a few others a joint 
stock company to build the levee and were awarded 
the contract at 24 cents per yard. The work cov- 
ered a distance of seventeen miles, constituting the 
enlarging of old levees and the closing of old gaps. 

One remarkable thing I may mention is that 
Opossum Fork levee across the baj'ou had stood 
all through the four years' war without being de- 
stroyed. This levee is frfty feet high. 

We had high water in 1885 which ran through 
our work and Capt. Clinton B. Sears and Assistant 
Clayton G. Coleman spent a part of the $25,000 
trying to secure ends of levees. We finished our 
contract in March and received a receipt from Cap- 
tain Sears and Major Richardson, but we could not 
collect all the individual subscriptions. In fact 
Major Adams and m3fself together lost over $18,- 
000. We consoled ourselves that, although we had 
made such a loss, we had accomplished the salva- 
tion of the country. 

In 1886 we were overflowed from back-water 
through the Arkansas River, caused by local levees 
giving" away. In 1886 we received an allotment 
of $87,000 to close the breaks and do some enlarge- 



326 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River- 



ment. Under the supervision of Captain Rossell 
in 1887 we were saved by the Mississippi River 
Commission coming to our relief with money, 
sacks and other material. Captain Rossell and his 
assistant, Capt. E. C. Tollinger, were in charge of 
the Government and their management cannot be 
too highly complimented. 

In 1886 the Arkansas River levees were allotted 
$60,000 by the Commission and the Tensas Basin 
people built these miles of levee from Amos Bayou 
to Costello Gin. We had no break in 1807 and feel 
that our levees are measurably secure. 

I am often asked the question whether the river 
is filling up, and my answer is, No. The facts are 
about these: 

I have been familiar with the gauge since its es- 
tablishment and always dictated where to put 0. 
It came within one-tenth of before we com- 
menced to hold the levees, but never below until 
October 9, 1895, when it went 0.2 below; Novem- 
ber 10, 1895, 3.3 below, which is the lowest ever 



known. It remained below until December of that 
year. 

In 1897, on October 27, it went 2.3 below and 
remained there for four days. You will note that 
1897 was the highest water and next to the lowest 
reading ever known on our gauge. At very low 
water in the early seventies it was a common thing 
to see from three to five boats in trouble on the 
river. Since we commenced holding the levees 
there has been no such trouble at Choctaw or Cat- 
fish Points. 

These are things that have come under my own 
observation. I ha\'e been a pilot and have been 
handling' boats over these places since 1870 and 
have lightered man)- a boat over these bars. 

On October 13, 1899, the gauge stood 2.3 at 
Arkansas City, yet steamboats drawing five feet 
of water had no trouble in plying- the river. This 
should convince the most skeptical that the chan- 
nel is cutting out instead of filling. 

I am fully in accord with the present system of 
levee and channel improvements. 




MAKING WILLOW MATTRESS 



Past-Present— Prospective 



327 




DESHA COUNTY, SHOWING LACONIA, RED FORK AND DESHA LEVEE DISTRICTS 



328 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





X. J. PINDALL 





M. W. QUILLING 



A. WYNNE 
President 



RED FORK LEVEE BOARD DESHA COUNTY, ARK. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



329 



THE RED FORK LEVEE DISTRICT 



By G. E. buck, Secretary 



The Red Fork Levee District in Desha County, 
Arkansas, was estabhshed b}' act of the State Legis- 
lature in 1891. It is composed of the poHtical town- 
ships of "Silver Lake," "Red Fork" and part of 
"Old River" and AA'ilkerson, embracing an area of 
about 250 square miles, fronting on Arkansas River 
from the line between Lincoln and Desha counties 
south to the mouth, thence south on the Mississippi 
River tO' the mouth of C3^press Creek, a distance 
of about 40 miles front on the twO' rivers. The af- 
fairs of the district are managed by three inspectors, 
elected every two years by a majorit}' of the land 
holders in the district. The tax levied is limited to 2 
per cent on the assessed valuation of the land in the 
district. This tax is collected by the sheriff or col- 
lector of the county and turned over to^ the treasurer 
of the district. 

The act of the Legislature establishing the dis- 
trict appointed G. E. Buck, J- T. Sledge and A. 
AVyman inspectors. They organized June 13, 1894, 
electing" G. E. Buck president of the Board of In- 
spectors, Frank Xady treasm-er, and V. R. Ryan, 
secretar3f. This Board of Inspectors served till Oc- 
tober, 1892, election, and were succeeded bj^ G. E. 
Buck, Frank Nady and W. M. Gardes and organized 
Nov. 4, 1892, electing G. E. Buck president, X. J. 
Pindall treasurer and R. M. Blakeman secretary. 
This board was succeeded October, 1894, by the 
election of A. Wynn, W. A. Cheshire and M. W. 
Quilling, and at the organization, A. Wynn was 



elected president, X. J. Pindall treasurer and G. E. 
Buck secretary. This board has succeeded itself the 
last two elections and are the present incumbents. 
Recent acts of the State Legislature donated all the 
State lands within the county (not embraced in other 
levee districts) to this district, the sales of which 
have added materially tO' the revenues of the dis- 
trict. The total revenues received by the district 
from all sources since its organization are $37,- 
866.41 ; have received in contributions to- levee build- 
ing from the Texas Basin District in Louisiana 
$15,000; from the Chicot County District in Ar- 
kansas, $12,000 ; from the Desha Levee District in 
Arkansas, $3,000, and from the general government 
about $100,000. It has erected about 16 miles of 
new levees and about 150,000 cubic yards of enlarge- 
ment and loop work. The district has successfully 
maintained its line of levees irom the ravages of 
floods, but as yet the levees are far from adecjuate 
for the purpose. Fifteen miles of enlargement work 
on Arkansas River above Red Fork will have to be 
accomplished, at a cost approximately of $50,000, 
and some eight miles of new levee yet on the Mis- 
sissippi River at a cost approximately of $100,000, 
before protection from floods will be given. 

A secure line of levees is of great importance here, 
as this district lies at the head of what is known as 
the Tensas Basin and overflows affect lands in the 
Chicot and Desha Districts in Arkansas, and the 
Tensas District in Louisiana. 



330 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





E. D. PILLOW 

President 



J. T. BRA.ME 





C. H. PURVIS 
Chief Engineer 



GREENFIELD QUARLES 



BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, COTTON BELT LEVEE DISTRICT, ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



331 



LE¥IE DISTRICTS 



63 PRINCIPAL LEVEE LINES. 

TO ACCOMPANY REPORT OT 

APRIL 20T?-(894. 

. Revised February 1898,' 

'^ ScjiLE or Miles 



United States Levee Districts 

i.'llPPCR TtNSAS District"- CAtoB _ R.SMT bank] 

Trom the Arkansas RivtR oo^w To rut Louisiana and 
ARKANSAS Line, 

^ ♦2rMioDLL Tensas District'-OBtoC — niQ-T oANiQ. 

^^ FftOMTME LOUISIANA AND ARKANSAS LiNE TO OPPOSHt Wa^HINTON 

^^ AeOuT lOMilES BtLOU vicnaeuRc , 

5"Lowe:r Tensas DiSTRiCT"~[CroD — rio-t s^nT] 

From Opposite Warrenton to Rcd Rive.o . 

4."ATCHftFALAYA DISTRICT" [D 'or - »' = "T aANl] 

ReoRiver to Batou Lafourcmc . 
5'.'P0NTCHARTRAII\1 D I STR I CT"— [EtoC! — lE tt banr_| 
Trom Baton R ouqE TO New Orlean s . 

e'.'LAfouRCH E District" — LF™ Q - r.^-tbankJ 

From BATOuLAroucnE to opposite Upper LinE op New Orleans . 
Ti'SARATARIA DISTRICT" — [Cl to H - «.!..tb«~«_| 
rnoM Opposite upper eine or Ne« Orllai-s to Hcao opPasbes 

S'.'Lake BoRGNE District"- [C'^H - eept oan.J 

Froi Upper Line op NewOrlEans to Head or Pajses. 




* 'Middle Tensas District" Now Merged in 
"Upper Tensas District." 



^ ^ X, j^ ^ j^ M IS K Jl dj 



LOUISIANA LEVEE DISTRICTS 



332 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ■ 





/3. 




Past— Present— Prospective 



333 



LOUISIANA LEVEES 



By henry B. RICHARDSON, Chief Engineer of Louisiana 



For untold ages the waters from an area of 
nearly a million and a quarter square miles, drain- 
ing through countless minor channels, have gath- 
ered in the Mississippi river and its tributary 
streams, and found their way through Louisiana to 
the sea. The finer soils and fertilizing elements of 
this vast territory have been washed from its sur- 
face, separated and selected from its poorer con- 
stituents, borne along with the currents to the 
main stream, and finally deposited in the alluvial 
valleys, building up a broad expanse of land of un- 
paralleled richness. Louisiana's share in this grand 
alluvian includes upwards of 15,000 square miles, 
or fully one-third the area of the State. 

In a state of nature, before the advent of civ- 
ilized man, the alluvial valleys were covered by lux- 
uriant forest trees and dense cane-brakes. They 
were also covered during the freshets of every 
Spring, with the overflowing waters of the rivers. 
As the waters rising from pouring rains and melt- 
ing snow in thousands of distant brooks and 
branches, gathered into mighty floods and swept 
down the Mississippi and the Red, they generally 
overtopped the river banks in many places, and 
flowed in a thin sheet over the adjacent land. The 
thick undergrowth, by checking the rapid flow of 
the escaping muddy water near the banks, per- 
mitted the earth and sand held in suspension and 
carried along by the current to settle, and thus 
continually built up the banks. But the stronger 
currents in the rivers themselves as constantly 
wore away and cut back the banks, into lower 
ground in some places, so that the work of build- 
ing up and tearing down was forever going on — 
as, indeed, it still is — and consequently the river 
"banks throughout their length were never built 
quite up to high water mark by the unassisted pro- 
cesses of nature. 

Thus it was that when the earliest settlers began 
to open plantations along the water courses of the 
alluvial valleys, they soon found it desirable for 
comfort and convenience if not absolutelv neces- 



sary for rendering the country habitable, to keep 
the flood waters from flowing across the river 
banks and over their clearings and plantations. 
The most obvious and natural means for prevent- 
ing such overflow was, of course, to make the 
banks a little higher with a ridge of earth. Such 
a ridge, or levee, a few inches, or at most a few 
feet, in height, was usuall}' sufficient to protect the 
immediate front against ordinary floods, and was 
not a work of great cost or labor. The lower lands 
back from the river might still be inundated, but 
this was of little consequence while there was 
plenty left on the front. 

The engineer, De la Tour, who laid out New 
Orleans in 1717, found it necessary to provide for 
a levee something over a mile in length to be raised 
in front of the cit}^ to preserve it from overflow, 
wdiich, however, appears not to have been com- 
pleted until ten years later, when levees were be- 
ing built by the riparian owners for a distance of 
eighteen or twenty miles above and below the city. 
It required another hundred years to extend the 
levees up to the mouth of Red river, though by 
that time (1828) there were some disconnected and 
unfinished levees on the west bank of the Missis- 
sippi as far up as the mouth of the Arkansas, and 
some progress had been made in levee building on 
the upper Lafourche. Ah of these earlier levees 
were so small and low as to be frequently over- 
topped and broken by the floods. Their propor- 
tions, compared with those of the levees of to-day, 
appear almost absurdly insignificant. As late as 
1851 the levees between New Orleans and Red 
River Landing, from actual measurements made 
by the United States Delta survey, were found to 
have an average height of only 4 1-2 feet, the larg- 
est not exceeding 8 feet in height, nor 32 feet in 
width of base. 

From these small beginnings the levee system of 
Louisiana has been evolved to its present con- 
dition, and its future evolution seems destined to 
continue. 



334 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



The grant made by the Federal Government in 
1850 to the several states of all unsold swamp lands 
within their limits, to provide funds to reclaim the 
alluvial region below the mouth of the Ohio, gJi,ve 
impetus to the work of levee building. Also, some 
years before the war between the states, a levee 
district had been formed of the alluvial lands in 
Carroll, Madison and Catahoula Parishes, with 
commissioners empowered to levy taxes on the 
two former parishes for levee purposes; and the 
police juries of Tensas, Concordia, Rapides, Oua- 
chita and Pointe Coupee had been given power by 
the legislature to raise funds by taxation for build- 
ing and repairing their levees. But otherwise the 
burden of levee construction and maintenance re- 
mained until after the war, as it had been from the 
beginning, a servitude upon the lands of the ri- 
parian proprietors. 

During- the four years of war the levees were 
greatly neglected, so that by 1865 they were 
breached in many places and in a general condition 
of disrepair and inefficiency. Efforts were made 
during the so-called "period of re-construction" to 
restore and repair the levees; but high prices, the 
magnitude of the work required and the general 
disorder and uncertainty of political and financial 
affairs prevented any decided improvement. Work 
was carried on under a State Board of Levee Com- 
missioners, under a Board of Public Works, and by 
a contract with the Louisiana Levee Company. 
But although some 20,300,000 cubic yards of earth- 
work was put upon the levees at a cost of about 
$11,000,000, between 1865 and 1877 (when the 
government of the state came again into the hands 
of her own people), the condition of the levee sys- 
tem was hardly better than it had been twenty 
years before. The levees in Desha and Chicot 
counties, Arkansas, upon which north Louisiana is 
as dependent for protection as upon her own, were 
broken and destroyed along almost every bend of 
the river, while at home the great crevasses at 
Ashton, Diamond Island Bend, Morganza and 
Bonnet Carre had remained wide open for years, 
and many miles of levees existed which, on ac- 
count of lack of means, had been built with grades 
known and designed to be 3 and 1 feet lower than 
the level of previous high water. 

It has been fortunate for Louisiana that her chief 
executives, ever since 1877, have been men who, 
each in turn, might be justly and appropriately 
called "the levee governor." Their active interest 



in levee improvement and wise influence upon leg- 
islation to that end have encouraged our people 
to perseverance, and have been largely instrumental 
in securing the enactment of the laws under which 
the levee affairs of the state are now administered. 
The alluvial valley has also been fortunate in the 
composition of the United States Mississippi River 
Commission. The oldest member of that body — 
indeed, the only one who has served on it contin- 
uously since its creation in 1879 — has been a per- 
sistent and cogent advocate of levee work on the 
Mississippi river, both as a means of improving its 
channel for navigation and to prevent the ravages 
of destructive floods. His influence upon the views 
of the commission has been manifest since 1882, 
when it made the first allotment of funds for levee 
work. 

There are now thirteen levee districts incor- 
porated under state laws, covering nearly all the 
alluvial territory of the State. They have boards 
of commissioners, varying from three to nine in 
number (there are eighty-two of them all told), em- 
powered to levy taxes and local assessment, to is- 
sue bonds, and, generally to do whatever is neces- 
sary to construct and maintain levees for the pro- 
tection of their several disti'icts. The Fifth Louis- 
iana and Tensas Basin levee districts were created 
in 1886; the Red river, Atchafalaya and Bayou 
Boeuf district, the Orleans district, the Pontchar- 
train district, and the Atchafalaya Basin district, 
in 1890; the Lafourche Basin district, the Lake 
Borgne Basin district, the Caddo district and the 
Bossier district, in 1892; the Buras district and 
the Cat Island district, in 1894; and the Grand 
Prairie district, in 1898. 

These districts have been organized with a view 
to local independence; that is to say, they are gen- 
erally susceptible of protection against overflow by 
levees located entirely within their own territory. 
The Tensas Basin district is an exception to this 
condition, being subject to overflow mostly by 
water leaving the Mississippi river in the State of 
Arkansas; and hence its principal function has been 
to aid in the building and improvement of levees 
outside its own boundaries and in another state. 
The board of state engineers are, ex-officio, the en- 
gineers and advisers for the levee boards of all 
these districts except the Orleans district, in which 
their duties are limited to the approval or disap- 
proval of levee locations on the river front. 

The assessed valuation of the thirteen levee dis- 





MARSHALL P. ROBERTSON 
Assistant Engineer 



WALTER H. HOFFMAN 
Secretary of the Board 




LOUISIANA 

STATE BOARD 

OF 

ENGINEERS 



^^TEngraving of Maj. Henry B. 
Richardson, Chief State En- 
gineer, appears at the begin- 
ning of the paper which these 
engravings accompany. 

Engraving of Arsene Perriallat, 
Assistant Engineer, appears 
with Atchafaloya Levee Boatd. 





H. BOLIVER THOMPSON 
Assistant Engineer 



THE LATE M. JEFF. THOMPSON 
Former Chief Engineer of Louisiana 





SIDNEY F. LEWIS 
Assistant Engineer 



FRANK M. KERR 
Assistant Engineer 




1 E. J. HAMLEY, East Carroll. 2. G. C, GOLDMAN, Tensas. 3. C. C. CORDILL Tensas. 4. J. T. M'CLELLAN, Madison. 

5. W. H. WARD, Madison. 6. W. H. BENJAMIN, East Carroll. 8. J. H. LAMBDIN, Concordia. 



THE FIFTH LOUISIANA LEVEE BOARD 



Past— Present— Prospective 



337 



tricts upon the state tax rolls, aggregates about 
$181,000,000; and their gross annual revenues are 
estimated at about $1,000,000. Their aggregate 
bonded indebtediiess, in April, 1900, was $3,581,- 
200. 

In addition to the revenues of the levee districts, 
the proceeds of a 1-mill tax throughout the State 
are available for levee work. Its estimated annual 
amount, after allowances for delinquencies and ex- 
penses of collection and administration, is about 
$150,000. 

The great flood of 1882 caused such destruction 
of levees and widespread overflow that a general 
feeling of discouragement pervaded the people. It 
appeared likely that a considerable part of the 
flooded country would be deserted by its owners 
and occupants, and that efforts to restore and 
maintain the levees might be abandoned, or, at 
least, indefinitely postponed. But in August of 
that year the Mississippi River Commission made 
its first allotment for levee building from the funds 
placed at its disposal for the improvement of the 
river, and new levees were built by the United 
States, closing most of the crevasses which had 
occurred during the flood of 1882. This gave new 
hope and courage to our people at a critical mo- 
ment, and the work of improvement has not 
flagged, nor pubhc confidence abated at any time 
since, although there has been no lack of disaster 
and of destructive overflow in a number of flood 
years following. The Mississippi River Commis- 
sion has made allotments for levee work from time 
to time as appropriations were voted by Congress, 
the aggregate expenditures for this work in Louis- 
iana and in that part of Arkansas which is of equal 
importance to us, having thus far been about $9,- 
600,000. 

The actual cost of levee work done by the State 
of Louisiana and its several levee districts, within 
the state and upon the Arkansas levees upon which 
she is dependent for protection, has aggregated 
since the close of the war in 1865, so far as records 
have been preserved, about $23,345,000. This is 
exclusive of the large and mostly unrecorded 
amount of work done upon the public levees (the 
greater part previous to the organization of the 
levee districts) by parochial and municipal author- 
ities, by corporations and private parties, and does 
not include expense of administration, nor dis- 
count or interest paid by the several levee districts 
on bonds or other debts. It is also exclusive of the 



cost of most of the wooden revetments and other 
protective works, and of all "high water expenses" 
such as sacks, lumber, freight, guards, laborers, etc. 

The levee system on the Mississippi river is now 
continuous on the west bank from Amos Bayou, 
in Desha county. Ark., to Bougere Landing, in 
Concordia parish, about twenty-six miles above the 
mouth of Red river, a length of levee of about 302 
miles and, except the opening into Bayou La- 
fourche, from Barbres Landing, at the head of the 
Atchafalaya river, to The Jump, a length of about 
295 miles. On the east bank it extends from 
Baton Rouge to Fort St. Philip, a length of about 
211 miles. 

The principal levee lines on interior streams are 
as follows; On the west bank of Red river, from 
above Scott's Slough to Eric's Point, about 34 
miles; from Bayou Pierre to Stringfellow's, about 
38 miles, and from two miles above Alexandria on 
Bavou Rapids to David's Ferry, about 37 miles; 
on the east bank, from Hurricane Bluft' to Ninock 
Lake, about 58 miles; on Bayou des Glaizes and the 
west bank of Atchafalaya river, from the junction 
of Little des Glaizes, to Melville, about 73 miles; 
on the east bank of Atchafalaya river, from Barbres 
Landing to Mussel Bayou, about 34 miles; and on 
Bayou Lafourche, both sides from its head at Don- 
aldsonville nearly 75 miles down the bayou, a 
length of levee of about 149 miles. 

Besides the levee lines above mentioned there 
are numerous short pieces of levee and detached 
dikes on the banks of the Red, Ouachita, Black, 
Tensas and Little rivers, etc., as well as public 
levees in the rear of New Orleans, making the ag- 
gregate of Louisiana levee lines approximate a 
length of 1329 miles. Add to this the 85 miles of 
levee in Arkansas upon which Louisiana is depend- 
ent for protection, and Ave have 1414 miles of levee 
line that may be considered as belonging to the 
levee system of Louisiana. The levees along the; 
southwest bank of the Arkansas river also have 
some share in protecting Louisiana against over- 
flow from that stream, and from time to time this 
State has contributed funds for their repair and 
maintenance. 

The present height and section of the levees 
above described, and their margin above high wa- 
ter, varies in different localities. While in a gen- 
eral way it has been attempted to build nearly all 
of them up to a height not less than three feet 
above the highest flood levels, before undertaking 




MEMBERS — 1896-1900 

1. JOHN P. PARKER, President; Ouachita Parish. 2. J. L. BORDEN, Secretary 

4. J. Q. GRAVES, Caldwell Parish. 
6. R. E. YANCEY, Catahoula Parish. 



3. W. A. COLLINS, iWorehouse Parish. 
5. J. A. HEMLER, Richland Parish. 
7. W. C. BUCHANAN, West Carroll Parish. E. M. HICKS, Franklin Parish. 



Past— Present— Prospective 






JOHN DYMOND 
President Lake Borsne Basin Levee Beard 



THOS. J. KERNAN 
Attorney Pontcliartrain Bar.in Levee Board 







\V. \. BARHA.M 
-Member of Tensas Basin Levee Board (appointed 1900) 



\V. H. HOLLOMAN 

Member Tensas Basin Levee Board (appointed lOOOi 



340 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



their enlargement to a final grade and section, 
there remain man\' miles of the various s}'stems 
that are still scarcely higher than the high water 
plane of previous great floods. On the Mississippi 
river, as far down as New Orleans, their actual 
height now probably averages over tweh-e feet, 
though there are many long stretches over twenty 
feet in height. Towards the lower end of the sys- 
tem their height gradually diminishes, so that in 
the Grand Prairie and Buras districts they will only 
average about five or six feet. On the Red and the 
Atchafalaya, a fair average height is probably nine 
to ten feet, though from the irregularity of the 
ground the heights are quite variable. On Bayou 
Lafourche the average height of existing levees is 
probably as mvich as twelve feet. There are many 
dikes across sloughs or bayous, mostly on the Red 
and Atchafalaya and on the Mississippi above the 
mouth of the Red, of great height — some of them 
over forty feet. 

The cross-section of the existing levee line also 
varies as greatly as its height, though nearly all the 
levee work of the past ten or fifteen years has been 
designed to have side slopes not steeper than two 
feet horizontal to one vertical, and the width of 
crown has been usually as much as eight feet for 
the larger levees, but there are many exceptions. A 
considerable length of levee has also been built 
with a "banquette" on the land side, giving it a 
greater width of base. 

The total contents of the controlling line of pub- 
lic levees in Louisiana and that part of Arkansas 
in which she is directly interested, is roughly esti- 
mated at about 112,000,000 cubic yards of earth. 
Taking the average price for which levee work has 
been done by the State of Louisiana during the past 
two years at a little under fourteen and a half 
cents per cubic yard, we should find the money 
value of these levees to be about $16,000,000. It 
does not follow, however, that they could be built 
de novo for any such sum, though there can be no 
doubt that the work would be done now and here- 
after for much less than it originally cost. This 
lowering of prices has been brought about largely 
by the substitution of mule teams with scrapers for 
the old-time Irishman with a wheelbarrow, but 
competition consequent upon the larger quantity 
of work offered has also had much to do with the 
reduced cost. 

Sixteen million dollars worth of work put into 
levees — or, indeed, two or three times that much. 



should not appear an extravagant investment, con- 
sidering the magnitude of the interests involved. 
But there is another way of looking at the matter, 
which has been too much the fashion, even with 
our own people, who best know — as they have 
learned from experience — the necessity for levee 
protection, and are most urgent in demanding it at 
almost any cost. Statistics have been compiled, 
and are frequently published, which show the cost 
of the Louisiana levee system to have been over 
thirty millions of dollars since 1865. No doubt it 
has been much more if all the unrecorded expenses 
incurred for levee work by parishes, corporations 
and individuals were included. But to continue pil- 
ing up all these statistics of cost, and comparing 
the total with the money value of the system as it 
stands, would be like taking the cost of all the im- 
provements, public and private, and expenses of 
administration in a great city from the time it was 
founded and contrasting the sum total of expendi- 
tures with the present assessed valuation. Of 
course, the city continually changes as it grows, 
like all other things that grow, and a part of the 
changes are destructive. It is the same with the 
levee system. Only, perhaps, in still greater de- 
gree. Levees are continually worn away by the 
winds and rains and degraded by the abuses of 
travel. But the great cause of their destruction is 
the caving of the river banks themselves. Until 
the banks of the rivers can be revetted and fixed 
in position, there can be no really permanent levee 
locations. As the erosion of the banks progresses 
steadily year after year in most of the concave 
bends, it must finally reach and destroy the levee 
lines, however far away they are originally located. 

Caving riser banks have been the principal 
causes of the destruction and abandonment of the 
older levees and of the continued great cost of 
maintaining and improving the levee system, not 
only in Louisiana, but throughout the alluvial val- 
ley. The revetment of the river banks in any gen- 
eral way would be a work of enormous extent and 
cost. In the present state of the art, it is far be- 
yond the means of most of the levee districts. Un- 
til it can be undertaken with such resources as can 
only be supplied by the general government, it is 
not likely that the river banks will be revetted, ex- 
cept in extraordinary cases, where the interests in- 
volved are very large and important. 

Just what grades and dimensions will be found 
requisite for the levees of the future can, as yet. 




BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, ATCHAFALAYA BASIN LEVEE DISTRICT 



6. (Center) T. G. SPARKS, President. 

1. O. O. PROVOSTY, Attorney. 

2. RICHARD McCALL, Ex-Member. 

3. J. M. HOWELL, Deceased. 



(ORIGINAL AND PRESENT MEMBERS) 

4. HONORE DUGAS. Assumption. 

5. A. H. GAY, Iberville. 

7. N. S. WILLIAMS, Deceased. 
S. A. D. BARROW, Secretary. 



9. ARSENE PERRILLIAT, Engineer. 

10. JOS. TORRAS, Pointe Coupee. 

11. HORACE WILKINSON, Ex-Member. 

12. THOS. BEARY, Lafourche. 



13. J. A. PREVOST, St. Marys. 



14. V. M. LEFEBVRE, W. Baton Rouge. 




BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, PONTCHARTRAIN BASIN LEVEE DISTRICT 



1. M. SONGY, St. Charles Parish. 

2. SIMON LE BLANC, Iberville Parish. 

3. EMILE BOURGEOIS, St. Jam=s Parish. 



4. LUCIEN SONIAT, Jefferson Parish. 

5. P. M. LAMBREMONT, Secretary. 

6. S. J. GIANELLONI, East Baton Rouje P.irish. 



7. W. P. MILES, Ascension Parish. 
S. HUNTER C. LEAKE, President. 
9. L. MONTEGUT, JR., St. John Parish. 




I. VICTOR MAURIN, Presideni, Ascension Parish. 2. W. J. McCUNE, Secretary. 3. A. J. LALLANDE; Assumption Parish. 4 JOHN MARKS, Attorney. 

5 R. PEREZ, Plaquemine Parish. 6 PAUL BERTHELOT, St. John the Baptiste Parish. 7 J. D. WI LLIS, Railroads. 

8. T.J. SELLERS, St. Charles Parish. 9. T. D. KENT, Lafourche Parish. 10 J. S. BRADY, Jefferson Parish. 11 J. K. TUCKER, St. James Parish. 



344 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



hardl}' be predicted. We must await the results of their turn, to be largely .Superseded by steam 



experience. It appears probable, however, that in 
the lower part of the state, levees on the A-Iississippi 
river — that is, those recently built or enlarged, and 
those now under construction — will not need to be 
made much higher for any floods that, judging 
from past experience, are likely to occur. In the 
upper part of the state it is equally probable that 
the increased heights of three or four feet will be 
found necessary. 

Nor can it be foreseen to what extent the future 
public demand for increased width and strength, or 
for additional margin of safety in height, will re- 
quire enlargment of cross-sections, with conse- 
quent additional earthwork. 

There can be no doubt, however, that the work 
of levee improvement will go on in the future with 
even more vigor than it has shown in the past. 
There is also good reason to expect that the work 
of the future may be done with greater expedition 
and at less cost than heretofore. Much attention 
in now being gi\'«n to earth-handling machinery, 
and a good deal of experimental work of this kind 
is now in progress or in contemplation upon the 
levees. The mule and the scraper seem likely, in 



dredges and other power excavators and convey- 
ors. The use of such machinery yvill probably 
cheapen prices, for it should make the execution of 
earthwork independent of fluctuations in , the 
markets for provisions, mules and feedstuffs, and 
of strikes of unskilled labor, and allow it to go on 
night and day at all seasons of the year. 

It is the hope and desire of nearly every inhab- 
itant of the alluvial valley that the federal govern- 
ment will take charge of the entire levee system of 
the Mississippi river. By its appropriations for 
this purpose during the past eighteen years, it sure- 
ly stands morally committed to continue the im- 
provements. 

Probably the riparian states may never be re- 
lieved from some share in the cost and care of their 
levee systems, but whenever the United States 
takes upon itself the maintenance of levees on the 
Mississippi river as a national work, we in Louisi- 
ana — with the rest of the valley — may feel that the 
vmequal war of the past five or six generations for 
the control of the river is at an end, and that se- 
curity and prosperit}^ have come to stay. 




1. OTTO THOMAN, President. 2. SAM'L ALSTON. 3. M. ABASCAL. 4. CHAS. T. YENNI S. JULES C. KOENIG. 

8. GERVAIS LOMBARD, Engineer. 7. A. DUMSER. 8. T. J. MOULIN. 9. J. L. ADAM. All of New Orleans. 

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF ORLEANS LEVEE DISTRICT 



34G 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



THE HOMOCHITTO LEVEE DISTRICT 



The Homochitto Levee District was created by 
resolution of the Mississippi River Commission, 
November 19th. 1894; its limits were defined to be 
the left bank of the Mississippi River extending- 
from the mouth of the Yazoo River at Vicksburg 
to Baton Rouge. This district is, therefore, by far 
the longest on the Mississippi River, and while it is 
the longest it is also the narrowest, reaching at no 
point more than a few miles from the river, as 



from Vicksburg southward, on the east bank, the 
hills hug the river very closely. There are no 
great basins like that of the Yazoo-Mississippi 
delta, St. Francis basin, Tensas basin, and others. 
The following estimates, according to a survey 
made by Col. Geo. McC. Derby, Corps of Engin- 
eers, U. S. A., in 1895, show the cost of protection 
to this district and amount and value of lands to 
be protected : 



Location of Basin 



Warrenton to Grand Gulf (Big Black sub-dis.) 

Rodney to Coles Creek 

Natchez to Ellis Cliff 

Ellis Cliff to Fort Adams 

Fort Adams to Tunica 

Tunica to Bayou Sara 



Number of 
acres which 
would be pro- 
tected 



Value of same 



15,500 
16,926 
16,537 

23..^75 
17,861 
32,000 



j?i2r,ooo 
127,000 
89,000 
206,500 
134,000 
117,500 



Cost of Levee 



|2I4,000 
44,000 
25,000 

413,000 
59,000 

254,000 



Since the great rise of 189Y, which has caused 
the elevating of all levees along the rise to meet an 
increased flood level of 3 feet at Natchez and 3.8 
at Vicksburg over flood water of 1882, these esti- 
mates must, no doubt, be materially increased. Re- 
garding the character of the basins and their rela- 
tive conditions looking to applications of an allot- 
ment, which the Mississippi River Commission had 
made. Col. Derby reports and reasons as follows : 

"Tn all of these basins the land lies so low that 
if the basin is left open at its lower end substantially 
the whole basin will be flooded by back water; ex- 
tensive back levees will therefore be necessary in 
all cases except in the basin from Natchez to Ellis 
Cliff and Fort Adams to Tunica, which being con- 
vex toward the river can be closed completely by 
front levees only. 

Suitable syphons or culverts will have to be used 
to carry off the sipage and surface drainage wdiich 
will accumulate in the lakes and swamps during 
high water." 

"The cost of syphons and back levees is included 
in the estimates above because, while it is prob9,ble 
that if the United States were to build the front 
levees in these basins, the owners of the land might 
build the back levees, there is no guarantee of this; 



and where the cost of the back levee is nearly as 
great as the value of the land protected, it is by no 
means certain that the property owners would be 
willing to make the outlay. 

In forming an opinion as to the wisest application 
of the available funds for this district, I have consid- 
ered the following elements of the problem: 

1st. Other things being equal, the funds should 
be applied where they will secure protection for the 
greatest possible amount of valuable property. 

2nd. Preference should be given to localities 
where the banks are permanent, where the relief 
furnished would therefore be enduring and not 
merely temporary. 

3rd. The rate at which funds will probably be- 
come available is important, because little or no 
benefit will be derived from any partial completion 
of the work in each basin. If the annual allotment 
for the district should continue to be $30,000, it 
would take many years of work to produce any 
useful efl'ect in some of the basins;. and if work 
were begun in any of these larger basins at present 
and Congress should cease to appropriate funds for 
levee building, the work clone would practically go 
for naught. 

4th. The disposition of the property owners to 



Past— Present— Prospective 



347 



help themselves is an important consideration. 
Other things being equal, the funds should be ap- 
plied where local interests are willing to con- 
tribute the most toward their own protection, both 
as a matter of justice and as a matter of policy. 

5th. I have given no weight to the claim that 
there is any special obligation resting upon the 
Government to protect these small basins on ac- 
count of damage alleged to have been caused them 
by construction of levees on the opposite side of 
the river, because after a somewhat thorough study 
of this claim in connection with suits now pending 
in the Court of Claims which were referred to me 
for report, I am of the opinion that there is no evi- 
dence of any such damage having been done, no 
detrimental change having taken place as yet in 
the flood height of the river between Vicksburg 
and Red River. 

Reviewing the data given in the table above it 
will be seen that all considerations combine to nar- 
row the choice at once to the basins from Natchez 
to Ellis Cliff, from Rodney to Coles Creek, and 
from Fort Adams to Tunica. 

There would further be no difficulty in deciding 
in favor of the basin from Natchez to Ellis Cliff" 
were it not for the fact that this is the one basin in 
which the property owners have done nothing 
toward protecting themselves. What weight 
should be given to this consideration is largely a 
question of policy with regard to which I do not 
know the attitude of the Commission ; individually 
I should be disposed to give it considerable 
weight." 

As shown by the report quoted, some parts of 
this district would require both front and back 



levees, as streams flow from the hills to the river, 
owing to the fact that these are but small basins, 
and allow only the accumulated waters of small 
streams. It must not be understood that the phe- 
nomenon of the Mississippi River is different to 
what it is in other districts, but the basins are very 
small, and consequently each basin must have its 
outlet to the river. Therefore this outlet serves 
the same purpose, in miniature, that the St. Francis 
River or the Yazoo River do to the basins of which 
they are the extreme boundary. The land owners 
and inhabitants of the most favored basins men- 
tioned above have vigorously contended for annual 
allotments to levee them. The basin from Natcliez 
to Ellis Cliff seems likely to secure the first allot- 
ment on the grounds of most favored conditions, 
unless they should decide in line of the suggestion 
of Col. Derby to allot to such of the three favored 
basins as shows the largest spirit of co-operation. 
In that case there would be an interesting bit of 
rivalry between these three basins. 

The protection of these basins must, of course, 
be dependent on many contingencies. Should the 
Congress adopt the suggestion embodied in the re- 
port of the Senate Committee on Commerce for 
a total appropriation of eighteen or twenty mil- 
lions of dollars to complete the levee system, these 
basins would no doubt receive substantial allot- 
ments and finally secure complete protection. 
Should, however, the appropriations be limited and 
should in the next few years unlocked for disasters 
occur to the existing levees the application of funds 
to these basins, or at least to all save those above 
mentioned, would be delayed. With proper pro- 
tection the value of these lands could be increased 
many times. 



348 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER-ITS GREAT VALLEY ITS 

RICH ALLUVIAL BASIN 



As this is simply a description and not a history, 
I will attempt no reference to the settlement of the 
Mississippi Valley and its early fascinating history. 

The drainage area of the Mississippi River is the 
most remarkable and most extended of any on the 
globe. While the Amazon River has a larger size 
and discharge, yet it has nothing like the number of 
miles of navigable tributaries, nor the number of 
square miles of basin. The Mississippi River not 
only takes to the Gulf of Mexico water, from the 
wood-clad summits of the Appalachians, but it car- 
ries equally that which falls on the part of the barren 
clif¥s of the Rockies. It extends in the northeast 
almost to the shores of Lake Ontario in New York, 
where steamboats have been known to ascend as 
far as Olean in that State, and in the northwest it 
reaches beyond the confines of the United States 
and drains tens of thousands of square miles of 
Canadian soil. These hundreds of millions of acres 
of surface pour their surplus water down as a vexing 
problem for the people who li\'e l^ehind the le\'ees 
to solve. Over one and a quarter millions of square 
miles is included in this surface — more than fortv- 
one per cent of the entire area of the United States 
proper — and in these forty-one per cent lie the gran- 
aries of the world and the work-shop of the uni- 
verse. Nowhere on the face of the globe is there 
such an area of such unsurpassing fertility, and the 
world has never seen such a remarkable industrial 
development as has sprung up in this great basin 
bounded by the coal fields and the wonderful iron 
cities of the eastern ranges on one hand, and by the 
mountains of gold and silver of the west on the 
other. 

These two metals which command the commer- 
cial and industrial supremacy of the world, are like 
sentinels standing on the two rims of this great basin 
encouraging the busy bee-hives to- a keener activity 
to increase its wonderful agricultural productions 
which feed the hungry millions of the older countries 
of the Occident, and tO' still further push the won- 
derful success in mechanical and manufacturing ac- 
tivity to still further conquer the markets of the 



world. A closer observation and an analysis of this 
wonderful basin reveals the greatest wheat and corn 
fields the world has ever known — tilled, garnered 
and shipped in a manner so skillful with labor-sav- 
ing inventions and methods so remarkable that it 
becomes the marvel of the age. 

Then the manufacturing and mechanical activity 
— the wonderful progress in invention, science, 
chemistry, together with unexcelled natural condi- 
tions, have conspired to enable this country to drive 
its opponents almost from the trade of the universe. 
And these two sentinels on the rim which confirm, 
strengthen and extend America's supremacy see 
even more than this ! They see the great cotton- 
producing section of the universe which furnishes 
the feed of the loom which clothes the world not 
only in raiments of acknowledg'ed cotton products, 
but that it rivals the sheep for manufactures of 
wools, the cocoon for the manufacture of silks, and 
the oil from its seed claims sistership with the lus- 
cious olive. 

This same cotton seed, which before the war was 
so despised as to call forth edicts from States for 
their destruction to prevent contamination of waters 
and in the interest of the promotion of the public 
health, is now aiding king- cotton to hold his throne. 

The value of the products of the seed of a ten- 
million-bale crop in its crude condition — twenty-five 
dollars to a ton — is one hundred and twent3'-five 
millions of dollars ! 

The possibilities of industrial force in the cotton 
lint, stalk and seed is illimitable and calls forth a 
speculation as to^ what its use will be to future gen- 
erations ! 

In this basin is springing into existence wonderful 
capacit}' for productions of both rice and sugar. The 
cultivation of the first is not confined to the area of 
lowlands where it was considered only possible to 
cultivate it, and the latter not limited to the sugar 
cane for its making nor confined to the nearlv tropi- 
cal south as we once thought necessary. 

Oh, there is a wonderful possibility yet unknown 
which the touchstone of an intellisrent extension of 




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1 1 |.i| .,■.•!- -5 .J -lit 



360 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



the uioileni iiiiiiroxenients and disco\eries in agri- 
culture will (ie\-elop. 

Then wh}^ should not this wonderful basin .be 
able to pour its extraordinary cornucopia of produc- 
tions to the great world through the most perfect 
system of water channels known to sciences? The 
growth of this basin in manufactures, wealth and 
population since 18S0 are sho\\^^ on the reverse of 
the map which follows page -Ui, and presents a 
picture of wonderful activity and success in all lines 
of ag"riculture. mining and in all forms of industrial 
art. 

The total luimher of miles of navigable streams 
which the JMississippi and its tributaries form is over 
sixteen tbotisaud and a liberal and rational improve- 
ment of internal waterways and the completion of 
i:)rojected canals will make this much larger. In 
fact when the deep water canals which will connect it 
w iih the Great Lakes are finished and become a part 
of its s\"stem, we will claim these Great Lakes and 
their tributaries as a part of the [Mississippi Ri\-er 
\'alle}-. It now has a comiection with these Great 
Lakes by means of small canals at different points, 
but the proposition w hich now claims the attention 
of the people of the ^Middle West is the connecting 
of the Great Lakes and this great river through the 
Chicag'o, Desplaines and Illinois Ixixers. 

The Chicag'o Drainage Canal now empties the 
waters of Lake iNlicbig-an by these channels through 
the Mississippi into the Gulf of INIexico. The deep- 
ening" of this canal and these ri\ers will afford a solu- 
tion of one of the greatest projects of modern times. 
\^'ith the completion of the Nicaragua Canal and 
the deepening of the channels mentioned, the gen- 
eral improvement of the ^Mississippi Ri\-er, and by 
the use of steel barges, it will be possible to ship 
grain and other burdens of commerce from these 
Lakes, down the Mississippi Ri\-er. through the Nic- 
aragua Canal and land them in unbroken cargoes at 
i\Ianila, Hc>ng" Kcwg" and Yokohama. 

These barges of perfect sea-going qualities are 
now in use on the Great Lakes and the recently suc- 
cessful trip of similar crafts from St. Louis to New- 
Orleans, of which illustrations will be found on 
page 290, demonstrates the correctness of these 
conclusions and the possibility of this prediction 
being realized in the not distant future. 

The contemplation of the second century of com- 
merce through this river opened up avenues of spec- 
ulation of abnost stupendous width and romantic 
insight. Just as the "laughable propositions" of 



IMulberry Sellers have been tliscounted by the act- 
ual accomplishments of science, mechanical devices 
and colossal business ventures, so w'ill the chimera 
known as the "Mississippi bubble" be discounted by 
actual accomplishments in this rapidly advancing 
era of commercial growth and development. 

^^'itb the further ad\-ance of the Mississippi Val- 
ley (I speak of it in its wider significance) in com- 
merce, manufactures, agriculture, mining, etc.. this 
great stream will become more and more important, 
and should be made more and more perfect as a 
channel by which all these productions may be trans- 
ported cheaply to till the growing demands from 
South American countries, and from the Orient, as 
well as to the extension of our great trade with 
Europe. 

An admirable article in prececUng- pages, contrib- 
uted by Gen. Leon Jastremski, formerly United 
States Consul at Callao, Peru, has shown some of 
the possibilities of this trade to a part of the South 
American countries. AA'hen we consider the entire 
South and Central America, the islands of the Pa- 
cific, and the Orient with its teeming- millions, we 
can nudtiply these deductions many times over. But 
it is useless for me to try to add to the statements 
made by Hon. M. J. Sanders, ]Mr. Stuyvesant Fish, 
Capt. John W. Bryant, Elmer E. Corthell, Hon. 
Charles Scott, IMaj. James B. Ouin, and others 
whose articles adorn the pages of this book. 

An intelligent and comprehensive plan of im- 
provement of the internal waterways of the LTnited 
States is something- \vhich is demanded by the farm- 
er, the merchant, the manufacturer, and even the 
vast railroad systems, which lind water competition 
not only healthful, but improving to^ their trattic, and 
adding- to the net earnings of their roads. 

THE NAVIGABLE STREAMS AND THEIR 
VALUE 

There are in the L'nited States, according to 
Poor's iMannal for 1S99, lS-i.S94: miles of railroads. 
These cost $.10,200,275,586. 

The expense of maintenance and improvement 
runs into the hundreds of millions of dollars an- 
nually. 

Now the K'l.OOO miles of waterw-ays fonning the 
}vlississippi River svstem should be valued at not 
less than $900,000,000. and its improvement should 
be rated accordinc'lv. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



351 



THE ALLUVIAL VALLEY OF THE MISSIS- 
SIPPI RIVER 

Linked with tlie improvement of the River, becomes 
a problem of stupendous importance to the people of 
the entire United States. It is the protection of the 
alluvial basins through which this river runs. It is 
unnecessary for me tO' discuss the equity of this mat- 
ter, for this has been sO' ably done in the article by- 
Judge Blanchard of the Supreme Court of Louisi- 
ana, formerly Senator from Louisiana and prior to 
that a member of the National House of Repre- 
sentatives, and for two terms chairman of the Com- 
mittee on Rivers and Harbors of that body. If the 
Mississippi River be national in extent, in govern- 
ment ownership', and in benefits, it should also be 
national in the matter of control. 

The measurements of the Mississippi River Com- 
mission put the overflow section of the Mississippi 
River at 29,790 scjuare miles, or a total acreage of 
19,065,600. The estimate of the alluvial lands along 
the Lower Mississippi and tributaries has been put 
by writers at 41,193 square miles, or 26,363,520 
acres, but in this discussion I wish to assume to treat 
it from the standpoint of the measurements of the 
Mississippi River Commission, hut remarking en 
passant, that the highlands in the various basins of 
alluvial formation, but above overflow now, which 
are exempt from the calculations of the Mississippi 
River Commission, are almost equally interested in 
a system of protection which would allow the safe 



development of the overflow sections, since they are 
now hampered by lack of rail communication, the 
extension which necessarily depends on safety from 
the ravages of periodical overflows. In elaboration 
of this view see article of Judge Taylor of the Mis- 
sissippi River Commission on page 

As an eloquent and truthful presentation of the 
whole commercial aspect of this question, and a con- 
servative computation of its present commercial im- 
portance, and future commercial possibility, I could 
not do better than submit an open letter which the 
Hon. Charles Scott, President of the Interstate Mis- 
sissippi River Improvement and Levee Association, 
has addressed tO' the people of the United States, in 
belialf of those who' live liehind the Mississippi River 
levees. This letter has been, and is still being, 
widely circulated, and has created marked attention 
and much comment, the latter being in the nature of 
wonder and surprise that the g'overnment of the 
United States has permitted a subject of such great 
commercial importance to suffer from lack of the 
paltry millions which would make possible this won- 
derful development. 

The subjoined statement shows the population 
for 1880, 1890 and 1900 of the alluvial counties and 
parishes of the Mississippi River, including those 
of the Red, Arkansas, White and St. Francis River 
basins. There are others which have more or less 
alluvial land within their borders, but those men- 
tioned below are the principal alluvial counties and 
parishes. 



SUMMARY 

STATE OF ILLINOIS 

County PopuLition 

1880 

Alexander 14, 80S 

STATE OF TENNESSEE 

take 3,96s 

Lauderdale : i4i9iS 

Obion ., .... 22,912 

Shelby 78,430 

Tipton 21,033 

Dyer I5>n8 

STATE OF MISSOURI 

Cape Girardeau 20,998 

Dunklin 9,604 

Mississippi 9,270 

New Madrid 7,694 

Pemiscott 4,299 

Scott 8,587 

Butler 6,011 

Stoddard ■ I3-43I 



Population 
1890 


Population 
1900 


16,563 


I9.3«4 


5.304 


7,368 


■8,756 


2t,97i 


27.273 


28,286 


112,740 


153.557 


24,271 


29.273 


19,878 


23,776 


22,060 


24,315 


I5.0S5 


21,706 


10.134 


■1,837 


9.317 


11,280 


5.975 


12,115 


11,228 


13,092 


10,164 


16,769 


17-327 


24,669 



352 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 

STATE OF ARKANSAS 

Population Population 

County 1880 1890 

Chicot 10,117 12,419 

Clay 7.213 12,200 

Craighead 7,037 1 2,025 

Crittenden 9, 415 13,94° 

Desha 8,973 10.324 

Greene 7,4So 12,908 

Lee 13,288 i8,8S6 

Mississippi 7,332 11,635 

Poinsett 2,192 4,272 

Pulaski 32,616 47,329 

Jefferson 22,386 40,881 

PhilHps 21,262 25,341 

St. Francis - 8,389 I3>543 

STATE OF MISSISSIPPI 

Bolivar 18,652 29,080 

Coahoma 13.568 18, 342 

DeSoto 22,924 24,183 

Holmes 27,164 30,97° 

Issaquena 10,004 12,318 

LeFlore 10,246 16,869 

Quitman i ,407 3,286 

Sharkey 6,3^6 8,382 

Sunflower 4.66r 9,384 

Tallahatchie 10,926 14.361 

Tunica 8,461 12,158 

Warren 31.238 33.164 

Washington 25,367 40.414 

STATE OF LOUISIANA 

Ascension 16,895 '9,545 

Assumption 17,010 19,629 

Avoyelles 16, 747 25,112 

Bossier 16,042 20,330 

Caddo 26,296 31.555 

Caldwell 5.7^7 5.814 

Catahoula " 10,277 12,002 

Concordia 14,914 14.871 

East Baton Rouge 19,966 25,922 

East Carroll 12,134 12,362 

Franklin 6,495 6,900 

Iberia 16,676 20,997 

Iberville 17.544 21,848 

Jefferson 12,166 13.221 

Lafourche 19.113 12,095 

Madison 13906 I4.i35 

Morehouse 14,206 16 780 

Natchitoches 19,707 25,836 

Ouachita 14.685 17.985 

Plaquemine il,575 12,541 

Pointe Coupee 17.785 19.613 

Rapides 23.563 27,642 

RedRiver 8,573 ii.3'8 

Richland 8,440 10,230 

St. Bernard 4.405 4.326 

St. Charles 7. 161 7.737 

St. John-the-Baptist 9,686 ii,359 

St. Martin 12,663 14,884 

St. Mary 19,891 22,416 

St. James i4.7i4 iS,7i5 

Tensas 17,815 16,647 

Terrebone 17,957 20, 167 

West Baton Rouge 7,667 8,363 

West Carroll 2,776 



Population 
1900 

14,528 
15,886 
19,505 
14,529 
11,511 
16,979 
19,409 
16,384 
7,025 

63,>79 
40,972 
26,561 
17,157 



35.427 
26,293 

24.751 
36,828 
10,400 
23.834 
5.435 
12,178 
16,084 
19,600 

16,479 
40,912 
49,216 



24,142 
21,620 
29,701 
24.153 
44.499 
6,9(7 

16,351 
13.559 
31.153 
11.373 
8,890 

29,015 
27,006 

15,321 
28,882 
12,322 
16,634 
33.216 
20,947 
13,039 
25,777 
39.578 
11,548 
11,116 

5.031 
9,072 

12,330 
18,940 

34.145 
20,197 
19,070 
24,464 
10,285 
3,685 



Past— Present— Prospective 



353 



The above summary will show that these counties 
and parishes are rapidly increasing in population; 
their wealth has increased even more rapidly. Im- 
proved levee conditions are responsible for most of 
this increase, and with the levees completed to the 
line of absolute security, giving confidence to capi- 
tal and an impetus to railroad building and general 
development in agriculture and timber manufactur- 
ers, these sections would develop with amazing- 
rapidity during the next decade. 

A discussion of the growth in population and de- 
duction which naturally grow out of a summary and 
comparison like the above, will be reserved for the 
description of the alluvial lands of the various states. 

It is impossible that, with the reaching out after 
new fields for the employment of capital and estab- 
lishment of happy homes that these extensive basins, 
unexcelled in fertility on the face of the Globe, 
should remain undeveloped. 

As aptly expressed by Mr. Scott in his letter : "The 
trade which should be developed from the fertile 
millions of acres now covered with virgin forest, as 
they are brought under the plow, may be greatly 
needed in the near future to foster and continue in- 
dustrial activity in the United States." 

Our country with even its vast resources and its 
ever-widening foreign trade cannot remain commer- 
cially prosperous and industrially progressive with- 
out increasing development at home, and certainly 
there is no greater field, none affording finer oppor- 
tunity for the employment of surplus labor, than the 



bringing into commercial activity of these millions 
of acres of land, with an annual trade capacity of 
two hundred millions of dollars, to the consum- 
mation of which the national government should 
devote its energies. 

To show the wonderful possibilities of develop- 
ment presented, we mig-ht take as a comparison in 
the little kingdom of Belgium, which, with a total of 
very little more than one-half of the area of the un- 
developed lands of these various alluvial basins o-f 
the Mississippi River, has a population of 6,750,000 
souls. With the same density of population there 
would be on lands which are now absolutely in their 
virgin condition a total of 12,000,000 inhabitants; 
or of the density of Holland there would be 9,000,- 
000 inhabitants, and the alluvial lands of the Mis- 
sissippi River are incomparably more fertile than 
those of either of these little kingdoms. As shown 
by Mr. Scott's letter, the bringing into cultivation of 
the 13,000,000 acres which now lie in their primeval 
condition would cause not less than two hundred 
million dollars' worth of trade per annum. When 
it is generally known that these lands will be pro- 
tected by the general government and that the dan- 
gers of overflow are over, the rush of people and 
capital into these basins will discount the wild 
rushes to Oklahoma and other abandoned Indian 
Reservations when thrown open for settlement. 

And the resultant trade will be a dynamic force 
to keep the wheels of commerce and manufacture 
in motion, and to hold and increase the present activ- 
ity in all branches of industry. 




Ifnterstate 
fllMssissippi IRivet Tfmprovement 



.AND- 



Xevee Hssociation. 



CHAS. SCOTT, President Rosedale, Miss. \ 

HIRAM R. STEELE, Vice-President ..... New York- » 

W. A. EVERMAN, Secretary Greenville, Miss' 

PATRICK HENRY, Representative . . . Washington, D. C. 
FRANK H. TOMPKINS, Special Kepre. . New Orleans, La. 
JNO. W. BRYAN T, In Charge River Statistics, New Orleans, La 

Executive Board. 

CHAS. SCOTT, Chairman Ex-Officio. 
HIRAM R. STEELE, N. Y. MURRAY F. SMITH, Miss, 

JOHN H. RICE, Kansas. JOHN A. MILLER, 111. 

JOHN P. PARKER, La. JOHN B. DRIVER, Ark. 

GREEN CLAY, Mo. t ^^^^^ ~ 

AT LARGE. t 

GEORGE ARNOLD, Memphis, Tenn. | 

JOHN M. PARKER, New Orleans, La. 

.JJt.JJt.JJL.JJL 

To Business Men of the United States Having Trade Relation with the 
Alluvial Sections of the Mississippi, Greeting: 

The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is the richest and largest on the globe. It comprises six great basins, of the 
following designation and area : 

ST. FRANCIS 6,706 

YAZOO 6,548 

WHITE RIVER 956 

TENSAS 5,370 

ATCHAFAIvAYA 8,109 

PONTCHARTRAIN 2,001 

Total Square Miles. 29,790 

It rests in the States as follows : 

IlvUNOIS 65 

MISSOURI 2,874 

KENTUCKY 125 

TENNESSEE 453 

ARKANSAS 4,625 

MISSISSIPPI 6,926 

LOUISIANA..... 14,695 

Total Square Miles 29,790 

This splendid area contains 19,065,600 acres, of which probabl)' 18,000,000 acres are susceptible of the highest degree of 
cultivation, but it is estimated that up to this time less than 5,000,000 of acres have been utilized for agricultural purposes. 
The total value of the staple crops raised on these lands heretofore brought under the plow, will approximate seventy-five 
millions of dollars per annum. 

What a wonderful empire of richness lies here yet undeveloped ! ! 

In the face of disastrous overflows, and the dangers and uncertainties of high waters, this alluvial country is steadily 
advancing in its productive capacity and in its importance as a market for manufactured goods and agricultural products. 

Since 1S90 its cotton production has increased fully 40 per cent. The Louisiana sugar crop from 1S84 to 1SS9 averaged 
140,000 tons per annum ; from 1890 to 1895, it averaged 265,000 tons per annum. 

The people of this valley are the largest buyers in the world in proportion to their means, even purchasing most of their 
meat and meal, while the}' do not produce, it is estimated, over one-half of the provender for their mules and other stock. 

The great mauufacturers of shoes, cotton and woolen goods, farm machinery, furniture, drugs, liquors, and hundreds of 
other articles, find in this valley their best customers, while the raisers of wheat, corn, haj', mules, hogs and cattle, always 
find here a steady and growing market. 

With millions more of these fertile areas quickened into life, and smiling with generous harvests as the direct result of 
adequate protection from the floods, will come double, or either quadruple, demands for the output of the industries and 
farms; of all parts of our common country. 



Past— Present— Prospective 355 

That such protection is entirely practicable is no longer a debatable question. The holding of our entire levee front in 
the sugar district of Louisiana in 1897, and of the whole line in many of the upper districts in the face of the great flood of 
that year; and since then, the safe conduct to the sea of the high waters of iSgSand 1899, without a single disaster, will 
convince every impartial mind of the efficacy of an adequate levee system, and that our safety in the future is simply a matter 
of money and engineering skill. 

We ask you, then, to help us get these ; and we, in turn, will diffuse our increased trade throughout the length and 
breadth of the country, thus adding to your prosperity as well as ours. 

The trade which should be developed from the fertile millions of acres now covered with virgin forest, as they are brought 
under the plow, may be greatly needed in the neat future to foster and continue industrial activity in the United States. 

A word now as to the cost of these improvements, looking to the reclamation and protection of this vast fertile empire : 
The Committee on Commerce of the United States Senate recently gave this important subject an exhaustive and intelligent 
examination, and their report indicates that it would require but eighteen or twenty millions of dollars to complete and 
perfect the entire levee system of the Mississippi River. This is not more than one-fourth of the present annual production 
of staple products in the section to be protected, and is not equal to more than one-tenth of what could be produced on its 
thirteen or more millions of acres of land (as fine as any on the globe) which are not now in cultivation. 

If by the spending of this sum, small when compared with the results to be obtained, we can bring about this wonderful 
development, which would distribute annually an additional trade equal in value to two hundred milUons of dollars, what a 
wonderful return for the money ! ! As an economic move it would be the best investment ever made by our government, or 
ever championed by those who seek enlarged markets for the output of our factories, and of our Northern and Western farms. 

But aside from the business and financial aspect of the question, there is involved in it an element of justice to the 
people of the valley ; for it must be remembered that the rainfall from the Apalachees to the Rockies, flowing down through 
nearly 16,000 miles of navigable, utilized waterways, is a constant menace to those who dwell behind the Mississippi River 
levees. We appeal then with confidence to the whole commercial interests of the United States, and to the great grange 
interests of the country, whose prosperity is so closely interwoven with that of the dwellers of the valley, to use their 
influence with congress to get for us immediate protection, that we may quicken into life an unparalleled development, as we 
turn our riparian forests into fertile fields. Give us your active support that we may produce on these millions of acres of 
virgin soil rich and abundant crops of cotton, rice, sugar and tobacco. 

The eloquent Garfield once remarked — "If there is one thing that is more national than another, it is the great Missis- 
sippi River." 

Give us your influence and assistance, then, to control the nation's river for the nation's good. You can do this in an 
effective and practical way by writing urgent letters to your Representatives and Senators at Washington ; not in a perfunctory 
way, but asking them as a personal favor and as a public duty to vote liberal appropriations for the protection of the Missis- 
sippi Valley. Do not stop here, but induce your commercial, industrial and financial bodies to adopt strong resolutions, 
memoralizing congress to take the matter up and solve it in the interest of national trade and prosperity. And, after all, both 
the country and the Congress should remember that this great public work, beyond the power of the riparian States, is only 
an act of justice to a people who have spent over thirty-eight millions of dollars in an effort to protect their homes from the 
overflow of this great national sewer, whose accumulated waters from twenty-sis. states and territories, embracing nearly one- 
half of the United States, and from a part of Canada, is a constant menace to their prosperity and an obstacle to their 
development. 

With the intelligent and active co-operation of yourselves, and other iufluentlal men having trade relations with this 
alluvial basin, we cannot fail to obtain Congressional aid for the speedy completion of our levee system, and I venture to add 
that in helping us to this end, you are also helping yourselves and all parts of our common country. 

I have the honor to remain, yours respectfully, 

CHARLES SCOTT, President. 

(Facsimile from original plate.) 



356 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



THE DAILY PRESS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

ALLUVIAL DISTRICT 



But mightiest of the mighty means. 
On which the arm of progress leans, 
Man's noblest mission to advance. 
His woes assuage, his weal enhance, 
His rights enforce, his wrongs redress — 
Mightiest of mighty is the press. 

— Sir John Browning. 





PAGE M. BAKER UZ.1 

Editor New Orleans Times-Democrat 



c 2Z-: 



THE LATE HENRY J. HEARSEY 
Editor of New Orleans States 



Past— Present— Prospective 



357 





•w 



W. C. CHEVIS 
Editor Baton Rouge (La.) Advocate 



JAMES W. LAMBERT 
Editor Natchez (Miss.) Democrat 





MRS. JULIA SPARKS RULE 
Editor Shreveport (La.) Elite 



MRS. HALA HAMMOND BUTT 
Editor Clarl^sdale (Miss.) Cliallenge 



'658 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





J. S. M'NEILY 
Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Commercial-Herald 



E. C. CARROLL 
Manager Vicksburg (Miss.) Commercial-Herald 





J. G. CASHMAN 
Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Evening Post 



C. E. WRIGHT 
Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Despatch 



Past— Present— Prospective 



359 




W. J. CRAWFORD 

President Memphis (Tenn.) 
Commercial-Appeal Co. 



LINDEN E. BENTLEY 
Editoi Donald son ville. La. ,Cliief 



A. E. PICKETT 

Editor Memphis (Tenn.) 
Evening Scimitar 




W. M. NEAL 
Editor Helenj i Ark.) World 



E. E. ELLIS 
Editor Cairo (III.) Telefiran 



360 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



RAILROADS 



AND THE 



ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



Some of the Presidents and General Officers of the 
Railroads which are factors in the Development of the 
Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi River 



INCLUDING SOME OF THE PIONEER ORGANIZERS 





THE LATE JAY GOULD 



THE LATE COLLIS P. HUNTINGTON 



Past— Present— Prospective 



361 





GEORGE J. GOULD 
President Missouri Pacific System 



STUYVESANT FISH 
President Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads 





M. E. INGALLS 
President C, C., C. & St. Louis ( Big Four) and Chesapeake & Ohio R. R's 



EDWIN GOULD 
President St. Louis S.-W. R'y (Cotton Belt) 



362 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 





THE LATE EDWARD S. WASHBURN 



J. W. THOMAS 
President Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railroad 





B. L. WINCHELL 
President Kansas City, Ft. Scott & Memphis Railway 



C. G. WARNER 
Vice-President Missouri Pacific Railway! 



Past—Present— Prospective 



563 





H. E. HUNTINGTON 

Vice-President 
Southern Pacific Railway 



.1. T. HARAHAN 

Second Vice-President 
Illinois Central and Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroads 





JULIUS KRUTTSCHNITT 

Fourth Vice-President and General Manager 
Southern Pacific Railway 



RUSSELL HARDING 

Second Vice-President and General Manager 
Missouri Pacific Railway 



364 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




F. S. GANNOiN 
General Manager Southern Railroad 



L. S. THORNE 
Third Vice-Pres. and Gen. Mgr. Texas & Pacific Railroad 



Past— Present— Prospective 



365 





W. A. TURK 
General Passenger Agent Southern Railroad 



H. C. TOWNSEND 
General Passenger Agent Missouri Pacifie Railroad 




T. J. HUDSON 
Traffic Manager Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads 




l*^'' 




A. H. HANSON 
General Passenger Agent Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads 



366 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 





C. C. HARVEY 
President O. & C. R'y 



^■^^ 



W. C. DOTTERER 

Receiver and Gen'l Manager New Orleans & Western R. R. and 

Chalmette Terminals 





J. E. LOCKWOOD 
Gen'l Passenger Agt. Kansas City, Fort Scoti & Memphis R. R. 




M. GILLEAS 
Ass't Gen'l Superintendent Illinois Centra! and Y. & M. V, Railroads 



Past— Present— Prospective 



367 



jtjjSwiAas, 




CHARLES HYDE 
President New Orleans & N.-W. Railroad 




LOUIS K. HYDE 
General Manager New Orleans & N.-W. Railroad 





LOUIS B. HOUCK 
General Manager " Houck Railroads" 



E. M. FORD 
General Manager Deckerville, Osceola & Norlhern Railroad 




s 



o 



o 

a. 



z 

O 
z 

D 



Past— Present— Prospective 



369 




z 

o 

o 
o 

s 

U4 



O 

z 

D 





a 
z 

D 

o 






3 

o 

H 



o 
z 

Q 

z 
z 

O' 
H 
H 
O 

U' 



H 
Z 

> 

O 

0- 



tu 

H 

O 
z 



o 

to 



370 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



__^ 




ALLUVIAL LANDS IN ILLINOIS AND KENTUCKY 



Past— Present— Prospective 



371 



CAIRO, ILLINOIS 



By J. R. RECTOR, Postmaster 



Cairo, standing at the gateway of Modem Egj'pt, 
the Queen City of Southern IlHnois, is a living, 
shining example of the benefits accruing from the 
very system of levees advocated in these pages. 

The Cairo levees are the outgrowth of years of 
experience in the building of these bulwarks of 
safety. Away back, early in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury, when the natural advantages of the point of 
land at the confluence of the two greatest rivers 
in North America first presented themselves to the 
early pioneers, it was keenly apparent that the prime 
requirement of all was some means of keeping 
the waters of these two rivers from encroaching on 
the homes and workships of those who might be 
induced to locate on the peninsula. That the 
pressing need of what we now call good levees was 
not apparent at so early a da}^ is evidenced by 
the fact that when an English company sought to 
obtain a foothold in this section of the country and 
establish iron works, mills, etc., on the present site 
of the city, they were content to surround them 
with narrow ridges of earth, crudely, not to say 
rudely, thrown together, and when the floods 
came the costly buildings and expensive machinery 
were swept away and ruin and desolation followed. 

This disaster, which would have been foreseen 
had our English brethren realized the power of 
the mighty rivers, resulted in discouragement, and 
a long period of inaction resulted. 

The building of the first railroad marked a new 
era in Cairo's history, and the inaction which fol- 
lowed the first disaster was succeeded by a spirit of 
push and enterprise, which has at last resulted in 
success. 

Resting securely behind a system of massive 
levees more than seven miles in extent, every foot 
of which is now up to full fifty-eight feet above 
low-water mark, with bases, slopes and tops built 
after the most scientific methods under the per- 
sonal supervision of skillful engineers, the inhab- 
itants know they are secure from the highest floods 
since Noah's time. 

Inside those splendid bulwarks the streets have 



been filled to a height approximating the levees 
themselves, thus lending additional security to the 
enterprising people who had so long warred Avith 
nature for supremacy. Most of those streets 
have been paved with a material known as Elco 
concrete — a species of broken stone mingled with 
iron ore found in inexhaustible quantities in Alex- 
ander County, only a few miles away — which is 
practically indestructible, and possesses the rare 
virtue of becoming harder and more compact the 
longer it stands. 

Supplementary to this levee system, which is 
confessedly superior to the far-famed dykes of Hol- 
land, is a system of sewerage and pumps, by which 
the city is kept perfectly free from the accumula- 
tion of water inside the levees during protracted 
high stages in the rivers. The pumps alluded to 
are located on the Ohio River levee. They possess 
enormous lifting power and are capable of dis- 
charging many thousand cubic feet of water every 
minute. The sewer system conveys all the water 
which may accumulate from rainfall or natural sip- 
age directly to the pumps, from all parts of the city, 
and it is discharged into the river. The result is 
that Cairo is not inconvenienced by prolonged 
periods ot higk. water.. Here not a wheel stapSy 
not a factory suspends, not a mill ceases running 
because of the floods. 

Now, what have been the results? Simply ines- 
timable. The liberal, broad-gauge policy of the 
city in inaugurating the pumping system as an 
auxiliary to the levees has already borne good 
fruit, even though of comparatively recent origin. 
Old factories, realizing that they may now pro- 
ceed on a more extensive scale without fear of in- 
undation or even a temporary wetting, are branch- 
ing out and building extensive additions to their 
works. New manufactories have been attracted 
here by the double inducement : proximity to an in- 
exhaustible fuel and lumber supply, and perfect 
protection to their plants. 

The advantages that Cairo may offer to pros- 
pective enterprises, or old business concerns seek- 




JOHN A. MILLER 
President Business Men's League 




C. R. STUART 
Secretary Business Men's League 




E. A. SMITH 
President Cairo Board of Trad 



P. W. BARCLAY 
Secretary Cairo Board of Trade 






THE LATE THOS. W. SHIELDS 



THE LATE W. P. HALLIDAY 




VIEWS OF BUSINESS STREETS, RIVER, AND PART OF HARDWOOD LUMBER 

DISTRICT OF CAIRO, ILL. 



374 Riparian Lands OF THE Mississippi River : 

ing a new location, are almost innumerable. Take world, and is one of the leading hardwood centers 

the lumber interests, for example : The idea pre- of the United States. 

vails to some extent that Illinois is one vast prairie. Cairo is now recognized as one of the leading 

This is erroneous. It is sixty miles north of Cairo railroad centers of the middle West. Entering the 

to the first small prairie and one hundi'ed miles to city from the North is the famous Illinois Central, 

the vast plains devoted to agriculture only. The with its double-track system; the Mobile & Ohio, 

region south of the prairies is still more than half- running direct from St. Louis, and the C, C, C. & 

covered with heavy timber. There are luxuriant St. L., or Big Four system. Coming from the 

forests, consisting of various species of oak, black South there are the Southern divisions of the Illi- 

and white walnut, white and yellow poplar, hard nois Central and Mobile & Ohio, both of which 

and soft maple, black and red gum, ash, hickory, cross the Ohio River on the magnificent steel 

sycamore, cottonwood, sassafras, mulbeny, and bridge, the finest structure of its kind in the United 

red cedar, all readily accessible to railroads. Then States, and the largest, with one exception, in the 

the States adjacent, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky world. From the West, crossing the Mississippi 

and Tennessee all have vast forests — yet virginal River on transfer boats, which carry whole trains of 

in their luxuriance — of the same kinds of timber, cars at each trip, are the Missouri Pacific (the 

easy of access by river or rail. Iron Mountain and Southern), and the St. Louis & 

Next in importance to the supply of raw mate- Southwestern (Cotton Belt route). Then, too, 

rial for manufactories is fuel. It is not an exag- there is the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, a new road, 

geration to say that a large portion of Southern which crosses Alexander County and connects with 

Illinois is one vast coal field; mines being sue- the St. Louis Southwest-ern at Thebes, coming into 

cessfully worked in probably a hundred places, Cairo over the Mobile & Ohio tracks. These give 

in deposits that range from three to nine feet in railroad facilities unexcelled anywhere, affording 

thickness. means of rapid communication with any point in ' 

The facilities for drawing on these almost virgin the country, 

forests for timber and on the coal mines for fuel Cairo has the finest inland harbor in the United 

have already attracted the attention of capitalists States, with seven miles of river front, where the 

from the great manufacturing centers. More than water is never less than thirty feet deep. This city , 

a dozen large woodworking concerns are in sue- is recognized as being at the head of deep-water 

cessful operation, and probably as many more have navigation. 

eyes longingly fixed on Cairo as a Mecca to which Cairo has a larger number of arrivals and de- 
discerning business men must sooner or later jour- partures of steam vessels each year than any other 
jjgy_ inland river port in the United States. Low water 

As an illustration of the growth of the lumber ^"^ ^" "^^^^' interfere with river commerce south 

business during the past few years, the following .1 

■ , 1 r ,1 az ■ 1 J X i-i ' AA'ith such facilities for commerce, and with such 
IS a synopsis taken from the ofncial records of the 

T 1 TT 1 1-4-1 i 1 J--4. surroundings as it has in Illinois, Missouri, Arkan- 

Lumber Exchange, showing the actual cpiantity '=' ' 

handled each year- ^^'^' Kentucky and Tennessee, it is not surprising 

that, as the records show, Cairo has twice the trade 

1^^^ 9,000,000 ft. q£ j^j.,y (.jj-y Qf j^.g ^'^^^ ^^ ^ j^ ^ Uuiou. The annual 

'^ • • ^5,000,000 tt. shipments by rail and river aggregate a sum ap- 

^^•^^ 40,000,000 tt. proximating one hundred million dollars, about 

^^^'^ 100,000,000 ft. equally divided between the two and consists of 

■^°"^^ 1^6,000,000 tt. wheat, grain, produce and coal to the South, and 

•^^^^ ^00,000,000 ft. lumber and other finished timber products to the 

1895 230,000,000 ft. ^orth. East and West. ' 

1896 300,000,000 ft. j^ jg estimated that about five million dollars ' 

l""^ ' 3b5,000,000 .L. ^j.g invested here in such business as banking, fiour, 

189° 400,000,000 ft. grain, iron and heavy hardware, groceries, drj 

1899 .450,000,000 ft. goods, etc. The city is exceptionally well pro- 
Cairo is the largest cottonwood market in the vided with banking facilities, having four solid, sub- 




EPISCOPAL CHURCH 




CITY NATIONAL BANK 



376 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



?.!tt * 








PAEPCKE-LEICHT CO. PLANT 




NEW PLANT OF THE THREE STATES LUMBER CO. 



VIEWS OF THE HARDWOOD LUMBER DISTRICT OF CAIRO, ILLINOIS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



377 



stantial banks — two National and two Savings 
banks, with aggregate deposits of about two mil- 
lion dollars. 

In the way of postal facilities Cairo is far ahead 
of any city of its size in Illinois. The local post- 
oflice is the best equipped of any in the State, out- 
side of Chicag'o; every part of the city is covered 
by an efficient free delivery system and the import- 
ance of the city was recognized by the Depart- 
ment in making it and Chicago the only places in 
the State for the inauguration of the new system of 
registration of letters by letter-carriers. There are 
in connection with the main office, two stations 
where stamps and postal supplies may be purchased 
in large quantities, and where money order or reg- 
istry business may be transacted. The sale of 
postage stamps, envelopes, etc., for the year 1899, 
amounted to nearly $27,000.00. 

The United States has erected a large and hand- 
some building here for federal purposes, at a cost 
of $300,000.00. 

The location of Cairo has been officially recog- 
nized as a healthy one by the United States gov- 
ernment, which has erected here one of the finest 
Marine Hospitals in the country. Regarding this 
the Surgeon-General, in a communication to the 
Secretary of the Treasury, writes : 

"It has been my frequent duty to inspect the port 
of Cairo, 111., to study its sanitary laws and to dis- 
cuss and to direct its military hygiene. As a re- 
sult of my observations and experience, I am pre- 
pared to assert that it is quite as healthful as any 
other place in the Union." 

In addition to the Marine Hospital above alluded 
to, there is St. Mary's Infirmary, a very large, hand- 
some building, skillfully and scientifically managed 
by the Sisters of the Holy Cross. It cares for city 
patients and for private individuals who may de- 
sire experienced nursing when ill, and for those 
who suffer from accidents on the numerous lines 
of railroads centering here. 

Probably no city in the West is better supplied 
with water and light than Cairo. There is a mag- 
nificent system of water-works, erected at a cost 
of more than $200,000.00. It has about twenty 
miles of mains, ranging in size from twenty-four 
inches down to six inches in diameter, and has a 
capacity of two million gallons daily, or enough for 
a city of 60,000 inhabitants. The water is ob- 
tained from the Ohio River. Within the past few 
years several artesian wells have been sunk in va- 



rious parts of the city, with gratifying success. 
Water as clear as crystal and chemically pure, has 
been found in inexhaustible quantities. This dis- 
covery will be especially valuable in the manufac- 
ture of paper, and the attention of paper manu- 
facturers has been drawn to it. 

In the way of light and power, the city has two 
finely equipped electric companies, the Cairo and 
the Egypt, both of which operate street cars which 
cover all parts of the city and suburbs; both fur- 
nish light and power, and both are controlled by 
home capital. 

Immediately north of the city is another prac- 
tical illustration of the success of the levee sys- 
tem. It is a drainage district, embracing some 
eight thousand acres of land, which had for cen- 
turies been annually overflowed by both rivers, 
leaving a deposit of alluvium unsurpassed in rich- 
ness. This ground is now protected by a system 
of levees similar to that which incloses the city 
proper. Throug-h the energy of the drainage com- 
missioners this district has also been supplied with 
pumps like those used by the city, and the result has 
been that the entire district has not only been pro- 
tected from inundation, but is relieved from the 
accumulation of rain and sipe water during periods 
of a prolonged stage of high water in the rivers. 
Much of this ground has been sold outright, much 
has been leased, and it is only a question of a few 
years when every foot of it will be under cultiva- 
tion; mainly by market gardeners, who will be 
able to send their products to Northern and East- 
ern markets early in the season and reap large re- 
turns. 

Few cities of its size can boast of more hand- 
some churches than Cairo. Notable among them 
are the Church of the Redeemer (Episcopal), St. 
Patrick's and St. Joseph's (both Catholic), the First 
Methodist, the Presbyterian, the Cairo Baptist and 
the Calvary Baptist, besides nearly a dozen others 
of less pretension, including quite a number of 
really handsome edifices owned by colored peo- 
ple of different denominations. 

Cairo proudly boasts of her public school sys- 
tem and school buildings. The latter would be a 
credit to any city. The more prominent of these 
are the Douglas, the Safford, the Lincoln and the 
Cairo High School buildings. The latter, a new 
edifice, just erected at a cost of $30,000.00, is one of 
the most complete of its kind in the State. Then, 
there are the Sumner and Garrison schools, both 




«s=3!aatjii 




ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD BRIDGE AT CAIRO 



CAIRO ELEVATOR 




NITED STATES CUSTOM HOUSE 



\ KTtuelCrct LO ~ 




nitf 



^ ^ 1 . ■ 

- Vf 

] 



Elk 



B n 










CAIRO HIGH SCHOOL 



SAFFORD LIBRARY 



Past— Present— Prospective 



379 




-■4bk^l ' l3 



— =ONifED StatesTrbiserConco^ 

IN Cairo Harbor, MayI6™™I9'" 1892 




UNITED STATES MARINE HOSPITAL 




JH.UC:T hESON ST LOU i> 



uPPtR GHT tLYNMQH^bHiK* 



BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF CAIRO, ILLINOIS 



380 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




"-^ 




THE H. L. HALLIDAY MILLING COMPANY PLANT 




HALLIDAY HOTEL 



Past— Present— Prospective 



381 




NAriONAL PUMP COMPANY 







MOUND CITY FURNITURE COMPANY 



SCENES AT MOUND CITY, ILLINOIS 



382 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



very handsome buildings, devoted exclusively to 
the free education of colored pupils. In addition 
to the free schools, there are quite a number of 
private and parochial schools, the most noted of 
which is Loretto Academy, under the manag'ement 
of the Sisters of Loretto. 

In addition to the churches and school houses, 
mention should be made of the Safford Memorial 
Library, a magnificent building erected at a cost of 
$50,000.00 by Mrs. Anna E. Safford as a memorial 
to her husband, A. B. Safford, who, in life, was one 
of Cairo's most public-spirited citizens, and given 
to the city for public library purposes. This build- 
ing now contains more than ten thousand volumes 
which are accessible to eveiy one. It has also a 
public reading room, a museum and music, or re- 
ception, hall. 

Cairo's future prospects are brilliant. The 
Board of Trade and Merchants' League, organiza- 
tions devoted solely to the city's prosperity, are in 
constant communication with individuals and cor- 
porations seeking locations here.. Several of the 



railroad companies are planning a new union de- 
pot, which will probably be erected in the near 
future. A new grain elevator of enormous ca- 
pacity has just been erected by the H. L. HaUiday 
Mining Co. 

No article descriptive of Cairo would be com- 
plete without a mention of the late Capt. W. P. 
Halliday. In Hfe he was one of the city's stanch- 
est friends. No labor in her interests was too 
arduous for him to undertake, no expense for her 
welfare or promotion too great for him to assume. 
Numerous monuments to his far-seeing" sagacity 
exist to-day and will exist for centuries to come. 

In conclusion, it may be truthfully said that no 
city in the Mississippi Valley has reaped greater 
benefits from the levee system than has Cairo, 
and there is no city in the West that has more 
brilliant prospects for the future, especially follow- 
ing the development of contiguous alluvial districts 
in Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee and Arkansas, 
when they have been made safe by a permanent sys- 
tem of levees. 








THE MISSISSIPPI AND OHIO RIVERS AT CAlRO-"WHERE THE RIVERS MEET" 



Past— Present— Prospective 



383! 




THE ALLUVIAL BASINS IN MISSOURI ABOVE THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN 




Assessed valuation in the alluvial and partly allu- 
vial counties of Missouri : 

Counties iS8o iSgo ig 

Cape Girardeau $4,034,538 14,449,178 fc, 547,196 

Mississippi 1,295,657 2,106,418 2,770,128 

New Madrid i, 193,854 1,638,067 2,246,160 

Stoddard 1,581,113 2,326,117 4,222,380 

Pemiscott 8iS,88S 1,040,276 2,150,407 

Sutler 889,775 2,298,159 3,403,543 

Dunklin 889,530 2,118,871 3,118,237 

The alluvial lands in Missouri He in the counties 
of Cape Girardeau, Scott, Stoddard, Butler, Dunk- 
lin, Mississippi, New Madrid and Pemiscott. The 
first three are only partially alluvial; Dunklin, Mis- 
sissippi, New Madrid and Pemiscott wholly so. 

According to the measurements of the Missis- 
sippi River Commission, there are in this state 2,874 
square miles, or 1,839,360 acres, of overflow lands.- 

The alluvial lands in this State are divided into 
two basins by the high lands, but of initial alluvial 
formation at New Madrid, that above New Madrid 
forming a separate basin from that below. The 
ower forms a part of the St. Francis basin, which 
lies in Missouri and Arkansas. 

There are three counties which are regarded as 
forming this basin — New Madrid, Pemiscott and 
Dunklin. Much of the alluvial lands in this 
State is above overflow, forming ridges and high 
lands that lie between the sections which are over- 
swept. Besides, the floods in that section of the 
alhn-ial valley recede, usually, before crop season 
begins, and thus those who dwell on ridges are 
enabled to make crop on lands which otherwise 



\ 



\. 



- - Past— Present--Pr©spect-we 



385 



would remain idle. But even with these advan- 
tages it was necessary for improved levee condi- 
tions to begin this active development. Now, the 
county of Pemiscott may be cited as an example of 
this statement. In 1S80 its population was 4,299. 
In 1890 it was 5,915. In 1900 it is 12,111. thus 
showing an increase in size to three times that of 
twenty years ago, and more than double that of 
ten years ago. 

Since 1880 an equally wonderful showing is 
made in the assessed valuation shown by these 
strictly alluvial counties. Take first Cape Girardeau 
county. This county had in 1880 an assessed val- 
uation of $4,034,538. Last year this valuation had 
increased to $5,547,196. This was not more than 
a normal increase for the state of Missouri; neither 
is Cape Girardeau very much alluvial — some in the 
extreme southern portion; and its development 
was not retarded by floods prior to- the present 
time. Mississippi county in 1880 showed an as- 
sessed valuation of $1,295,657. In 1899 a total 
assessment of $2,270,128 shows that it has doubled 
these figures. This county is nearly all alluvial. 
New Madrid county, which is all alluvial, but which 
has been retarded in growth by the absence of a 
cO'mplete levee system, still shows an increase from 
$1,193,854 in 1880 to $2,246,160 in 1899, or nearly 
double. Over two-thirds of this has accumulated 
within the last nine years. Stoddard count}^ shows a 
remarkable increase — from $1,581,113 in 1880 to 
$4,222,280 in 1899. 

As is seen by the summary given above, the in- 
crease in the stricth' alluvial counties has been 
almost entirely within the last nine years, or since 
the levee system became more secure. 

Pemiscott county, which in 1880 had an assessed 
valuation of $818,888, showed a growth up to 1S90 
of about $200,000 in assessed valuation, but in 
1899, nine years later, it had more than doubled 
the assessed valuation of 1890; that is, it had in- 
creased its valuation in the last nine years five 
times as much as it did in the first ten years pre- 
ceding. This is one of the best exemplifications of 
the benefit of a levee system to the growth of the 
country. Butler county has figures exceeding 
these, where, from $889,775 on the rolls in ISSO, it 
has increased to $3,403,543. Dunklin county nearly 
parallels it in the rapidity of its growth. 

In addition to the growth caused by natural 
development following improved levee conditions, 



the railroads have done much to hasten develop- 
ment. The magnificent timber interests of this 
section have drawn railroads hither until there are 
several new lines built through Pemiscott, New 
Madrid, Dunklin and Stoddard. These roads are the 
Houck system of roads, the Paragould & Eastern 
Railroad, the St. Louis, Memphis & Caruthersville, 
the main lines and branches of the St. Louis, Iron 
Mountain & Southern, and the St. Louis South- 
western roads. 

In this section of the Mississippi River alluvial 
districts, and in the northern tier of the Arkansas 
counties, which lie back from the river, is found 
beautifully kept farms, on which are raised small 
grain and hay very similar to those of most of the 
northern prairie states, as illustrations accompany- 
ing this article show. 

While the assessed valuation and population 
have both increased very rapidly in the last twenty 
years, it will be noted, as remarked above, and as 
is shown by the comparison of the increases be- 
tween the two decades, this increase has *^een 
much more rapid of late years. No doubt, with 
perfect immunity from water, these counties will 
over double, and many of them will probably quad- 
ruple, their present assessed valuation and popula- 
tion in the next decade. 

Caruthersville, in Pemiscott county, is one of the 
most remarkable examples of the improvement in 
growth and facilities in this section. A few years 
ago it was simply an isolated town on the Missis- 
sippi River, without any especial claims to notice. 
Now it has stave factories and heading factories, 
sawmills, one of which has a capacity of one hun- 
dred thousand feet a day; ice plant of ten tons' 
capacity; a school building, heated by steam, cost- 
ing $13,000; a very fine courthouse, and a two- 
story brick jail, costing $8,000. It has two banks — • 
the Bank of Caruthersvihe, with a capital of $30,- 
000, and the Pemiscott County Bank, with a capital 
of $25,000. It has two railroads — the St. Louis, 
Caruthersville & Memphis, and the St. Louis, Ken- 
nett & Southern — and others are reaching out in 
that direction. It has two newspapers — the Daily 
Press and the Dempcrat, which is printed twice a 
week. It has the largest wholesale hardware store 
between Memphis and St. Louis on the west side 
of the river. Its present population is 2,315. Sit- 
uated in the midst of a rapidly growing county, 
advancing both in wealth and population, and con- 



386 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





LON V. STEPHENS 
Governor of Missouri 



DAVID R. FRANCIS 
Ex-Governor of Missouri 




WILLIAM J. STONE 
Ex-Governor of Missouri 



-^v— 






rir^~..>^«-//j -^^^^ y r 



■'t.j^.m^^^ytj.^Ad& 




THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. 



388 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



nected by these railroads with rich counties in the 
rear, and equally rich counties on the south, in 
Arkansas, it has ever)? prospect of showing a more 
rapid increase in the next census. 

New Madrid, in New Madrid, is a very old town, 
as it was laid out by Pierre Foucher in 1789. It 
occupied an irregular piece of ground lying be- 
tween Baj'ou St. John and Bayou Desroches, and 
fronted the river on the southeast. Since the settle- 
ment of the town the Mississippi has made an annual 
encroachment upon it until now the original site 
lies about a mile from the bank on the Kentucky 
side. Addition upon addition has been made, only 
to be swallowed up; all the old landmarks have one 
by one succumbed to the devouring current, and 
New Madrid of to-day has nothing about it which 
suggests its origin. In November, ISOS, New 
Madrid was incorporated. It did not, however, 
improve much until after the year 1822, when the 
seat of justice was permanently located here. Its 
first newspaper was printed in 1846. There are now 
two newspapers in the city^ — the Record and the 
Southeast Missourian. It has now several fine 
brick store buildings, two large school buildings, 
one for the white and one for the colored. It has a 

large stave factoiy, cotton gin works, and 

electric light plant. Two railroads enter the cit}' 
— branch of the St. Louis Southwestern (Cotton 
Belt) and the St. Louis & Memphis Railroad. A 
third is projected that will he built early in the 
spring. The present population is about li.OOO. 



New Madrid is supported by a very rich surround- 
ing country, and its industries and trade are built 
on substantial lines, and will no doubt show rapid 
increase in the next few years. 

Other places in this rich alluvial belt which show 
rapid increases in size and industrial activity are 
Charleston, the county seat of Mississippi county: 
Hayti; Kennett, the county seat of Dunklin 
county, which is quite a new place, but a ver)? pros- 
perous one; Poplar Blufl, on the St. Louis, Iron 
Mountain & Southern, the county seat of Butler^ 
which has 4,321; Cardwell, on the St. Francis 
River, and on the Parag'ould, Southeastern Rail- 
road; Charleston, the county seat, which is situ- 
ated on both the St. Louis Southwestern and the 
St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Railroads; 
Minley, in Scott county, at the junction of three 
railroads; Moorehouse, on the borders of New 
Madrid and Stoddard counties; Portagevihe, in 
Pemiscott county. In fact, growing vihages and 
towns have sprung up all through the alluvial sec- 
tions of the state along lines of railroads which 
have been built through these sections. Maps are 
given in this connection which show the location 
of these cities and towns and also the location of 
the different lines of railroads. Figures accom- 
panving each map show the population of these 
counties in 1880, 1890, and 1900, demonstrating a 
wonderful improvement in the last twenty years, 
as increase in population is a sure sign of commer- 
cial or industrial activitv, or both. 







Past— Present— Prospective 



389 




NEW MADRID 



CAPE GIRARDEAU, MO. 

Taxable area 361,364 

Assessed valuation, 1899 $5,547,196 

1890 4,449,178 

1880 4,034,53s 

Increase in 19 years 1,512,658 

Population, see page 351 



SCOTT COUNTY, MO. 

Taxable area 260,365 

Population, see page 351 



ALEXANDER COUNTY, ILLS. 

Population, see page 351 



390 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




PE MISCOT 



NEW MADRID COUNTY, MO. 

Population, 1900 11,280 

Assessed Valuation, 1899 . . , $2,246,160 

1890 1,638,067 

1880 1,193.854 

Increase in 19 years 1,052,306 

Taxable Area (acres) 350,489 



MISSISSIPPI COUNTY, MO. 

Population, 1900 1I1837 

Assessed Valuation, 1899 $2,770, 125 

" " 1890 2,106,418 

1880 1,295,657 

Increase in 19 years 1,474,468 

Taxable Area (acres) 247,852 



Population 1880, 1890, see page 351. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



391 




CULTIVATING AN ALLUVIAL FARM — STODDARD COUNTY, MO. 



, M 




THE GOLDEN GRAIN AS GROWN ON THE RICH ALLUVIUM OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 



392 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




THESE THREE LOGS MADE 1 1,000 FEET OF LUMBER CUT FROM FARM OF LOUIS B. HOUCK, ST. FRANCIS BASIN 



! 






mi 



,A 




CUTTING RAILROAD ROUTE THROUGH A CYPRESS BRAKE, ST. FRANCIS BASIN 



Past— Present— Prospective 



393 




COURT HOUSE AT KENNETT, DUNKLIN COUNTY, MISSOURI 




"'•"-^'^-^--;P!r^.ti 




SHIPPING COTTON — SCENE IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN 



O r~>- c^^ t^ N 

CO M W \0 *0 
fO f-- -" W CO 




c ^ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



595 





HARVEST TIME IN SOUTHEAST MISSOURI -SCENES NEAR DEXTER, STODDARD COUNTY 



396 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




MAKING DRAINAGE CANAL, TO RECOVER SWAMP LANDS, NEAR 
MOOREHOUSE, NEW MADRID COUNTY, MISSOURI 




FINISHED DRAINAGE CANAL, THROUGH SWAMP LANDS, NEAR 
MOREHOUSE, NEW MADRID COUNTY. MISSOURI. 



THE BUILDING-UP OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 



Past— Present— Prospective 



397 




RAILROAD YARDS AT KENNETT, MISSOURI 



■*%^^ «^'*^"^ f 




PUBLIC SQUARE AT KENNETT, MISSOURI, 1894 



SCENES IN THE BUILDING-UP OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 



398 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





BUILDING A NEW RAILROAD IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN 




PILING TRAIN IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN 




'^^i ^^'iiM-^i'ik^ M. <^i^^^^-'^>k 








.iSSk V 



--^aJS-ttiiSSKj^^ 



'''^^^^4kA^M^ ^ j'-^*! 



>/':::: 



-■nr^'m^ 



REAPING THE RESULTS-SCENES IN THE RICH BOTTOMS OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 



400 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



<?-ffiSTODDARD 




K A 



DUNKLIN COUNTY, MO. 

Taxable area, acres 247,218 

Assessed valuation, 1S80 $ 889,530 

" " 1890 2,118,871 

" " 1899 3,118,237 

Increase in 19 years 1,228,707 



PEMISCOT COUNTY, MO. 

Taxable area, acres. 350>489 

Assessed valuation, 1S80 $ 818,888 

" 1890 2,298,159 

1S99 3,118,237 

Increase in 19 years 2,299,349^ 



Past— Present— Prospective 



401 




A RESIDENCE STREET AT KENNETT, MISSOURI 




PUBLIC SQUARE, KENNETT, MISSOURI, 1899 




VIEWS OF NEW MADRID, MO. 




VIEWS OF CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. 




J. J. DOYNE 

Superintendent Public Education of Arl^ansas 




T. C. MONCURE 
State Auditor of Arkansas 




GEO. W. MURPHY 
Attorney-General of Arkansas 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 
Governor of Arkansas 





FRANK HILL 
Commissioner of Agriculture, Mines and Manufactures 




JAMES P. CLARKE 
Ex-Governor of Arkansas 



THOS. E. LITTLE 
State Treasurer of Arkansas 




wMfTm^if 




COUNTIES WHICH LIE PARTLY AND 
WHOLLY IN THE ALLUVIAL DIS- 
TRICTS OF ARKANSAS, ASSESS- 
ED VALUATION, AREA, ETC. 

CLAY, GREENE, PULASKI, PHILLIPS, DESHA, 
JEFFERSON, CHICOT. 

(For Population see Page 352.) 

Note. — Statistics were not secured of the assessed valuation of the last- 
named counties, but mention is made of their progress in the general 
description. — Ed. 

ST. FRANCIS COUNTY 

Total area 648 square miles ( ^4 alluvial ) 

Total assessed value, 1S90. 12,540,291 

1899 2,645,586 

LEE COUNTY 

Total area 600 square miles { ^4 alluvial) 

Total assessed value, 1890 12,423,535 

" 1899 2,538,645 

CROSS COUNTY 

Total area 600 square miles {^ alluvial) 

Total assessed value, i8go $1,930,252 

1899 2,330,350 

CRAIGHEAD COUNTY 

Total area 700 square miles ( ^3 alluvial) 

Total asse.ssed value, 1890 #3>o9ii765 

'• " " 1S99 4,179,010 

POINSETT COUNTY 

Total area 684 square miles ( ^X alluvial) 

Total assessed value, 1890 $1,686,731 

1899 1,990,327 

MISSISSIPPI COUNTY 

Total area 800 square miles ( all alluvial ) 

Total assessed value, 1890 11,862,167 

" '• " 1899 2,232,270 

CRITTENDEN COUNTY 

Total area 600 square miles (all alluvial) 

Total assessed value, 1890 12,115,079 

" 1899 2,811,953 



Past— Present— Prospective 



405 




E Y ! 

I'-'Saccesjr 
I CORNING 




CLAY AND GREENE COUNTIES, 
ARKANSAS 

(Size Reduced) 
For Population, see page 352. 



406 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 




THE TREES GROWN IN THE RIPARIAN LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 




OPENING UP THE ALLUVIAL LANDS OF ARKANSAS 



Past— Present- 
alluvial LANDS IN ARKANSAS 

According to the surveys of the Mississippi 
River Commission, as shown m the large map 
which accompanies this pubhcation, the entire 
number of square miles of Mississippi River al- 
luvium, or rather of the overflow lands of the Mis- 
sissippi River, is 4,625 square miles, or a total of 
2,960,000 acres. In addition to these lands there is 
alluvial soil of the Arkansas River, and White 
River, which is not counted in this total. It is 
quite safe to say that the entire alluvial districts of 
the state of Arkansas would approximate 6,000 
square miles. 

In the northern part of the state, and in the out- 
lying sections back from the rivers, there is culti- 
vated considerable grain, and raising of cattle is 
largely the occupation of the people. 

The great staple crops of these alluvial sections 
are corn and cotton, and even the former is not 
raised in sufficient quantities for home consump- 
tion. It may be an error of judgment and develop- 
ing- a lack of conservative farming practice, but it 
nevertheless is a fact that the people of the alluvial 
sections of the Mississippi River depend on cotton 
— bu};- their meat, their meal, and much of their 
corn, which is unusual in a farming communit3^ 

The present condition of the great alluvial basins 
in Arkansas is shown by the fact that the develop- 
ment in that section is not over twenty per cent. 
In the northern and western portions of the Missis- 
sippi River bottom, in the upper St. Francis basin, 
it will probably exceed that amount, but lower 
down, in the White River basin, and in the upper 
Tensas, which is just above the Louisiana line, this 
estimate would be entirely too great. So^ of these 
2,960,000 acres there is probably yet untouched by 
the plow 2,500,000 acres, a very large amount of 
which is heavily timbered, and practically all of it 
is fertile and well-drained. 

Eastern Ai'kansas has, besides the Mississippi 
River, which forms its boundary line, separating 
it from Tennessee and Mississippi, the White, St. 
Francis, Black and Cache rivers draining the up- 
per basin, and the lower White and Arkansas 
Rivers in the lower basin. 

The railroads which traverse these alluvial sec- 
tions are the Missouri Pacific system, (St. Louis, 
Iron Mountain & Southern), Cotton Belt; Houck 
system of railroads: St. Louis, Caruthersville & 
Memphis; Kansas City, Ft. Scott & Memphis, the 
Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf, Arkansas Midland; 



-Prospective 



40/ 



Mississippi River; Hamburg & Western; Deckers- 
ville, Osceola & Northern; Brinkley & Helena; 
and Batesville & Brinkley, and a few others which 
touch the alluvial sections at different points. The 
St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern division of 
the Missouri Pacific, and the St. Louis, South 
W^estern (Cotton Belt), have bi^anch lines running 
into nearly all of the different basins. 

Thus the facilities for marketing the productions 
of these basins are good, and new railroads and new 
branches of existing systems are being built or pro- 
jected in different directions, influenced, no doubt, 
by the present fairly satisfactory levee conditions, 
and the growing conviction that overflows will 
soon be a thing of the past. 

The average yield of cotton in these rich "bot- 
toms" is fully 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 
Corn and oats produce in proportion. 

In the lighter lands sweet potatoes, turnips, sor- 
ghum, Irish potatoes, and all kinds of garden 
truck are successfully g-rown, and the careful farmer 
nearly always has an abundance of these for his 
own use, and some to market when he goes to his 
nearest town. This, of course, applies to the smaller 
farmers. The larger plantation owners raise these 
things only for home use, and too frequently pay 
so much attention to King Cotton that these pro- 
ducts are overlooked. 

Arkansas is a great fruit state, especially for 
apples. These, however, are raised mostly in the 
hill sections of the northwestern portion of the 
state, but the climate and soil in the alluvia! section 
are eminently suitable for the successful raising of 
all kinds of fruit; and not only can they raise all 
kinds of fruit but, owing to the extreme fertility 
of these lands they attain an unusual perfection in 
size and flavor. 

The lands which have been cultivated and be- 
come worn, or at least as near worn as the extra- 
ordinary depth and fertility of this soil will permit, 
are sometimes planted in grasses, and these grow 
luxuriantly. 

The climate of this part of Arkansas is so equable 
and the density of the cane brakes so great that 
thousands of cattle roam the bottoms and thrive all 
the winter long without being fed. In fact there 
are numerous instances where even the finest 
grades of short-horn cattle have been successfully 
wintered with the use of only small quantities of 
cotton seed, and at trifling expense. Cattle raising. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



409 




VIEWS OF JONESBORO, ARKANSAS 



410 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



i£ £MfL. 




MISSISSIPPI COUNTY 
ARKANSAS 

Lyin^ cunc//y cuithin 
■ The St. Franc/ s Lefcr District. 



Area 800 square miles (all alluvial) 

Assessed valuation, 1899 13,232,270 

Assessed valuation, 1890 1,862,167 

Increase in 9 years $1,370,103 

Population, see page 352 



Past— Present— Prospective 



411 




mil Si, 




DEPOT OF THE DECKERVILLE, OSCEOLA & NORTHERN RAILROAD AT LUXORA, ARKANSAS 




VI 



EW OF PRINCIPAL BUSINESS STREET, LUXORA, ARKANSAS 



412 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




'riarna^^^^ 



VIEWS OF OSCEOLA, ARKANSAS 




VIEWS OF ARKANSAS CITY, ARKANSAS 




CRITTENDEN COUNTY 
ARKANSAS 

The Sf. Francis Let/ee D/sfr/cf. 



Area 600 square miles (all alluvial) 

Assessed valuation, 1899 |2i8ii,953 

Assessed valuation, 1S90 2,115,079 

Increase in 9 years $695,874 

Population, see page 352 



Past— Present— Prospective 



415 J 




m-^^M 




SCENES ON THE ST. FRANCIS 
RIVER IN ARKANSAS 



THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE 






SCENES ON THE ST. FRANCIS 
RIVER IN ARKANSAS 





DUCK HUNTING ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER 



FISHING IN THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER 




>>10 



.3 lo 
3 ^ 






CO o 



[fl 



3 a, 



<; ■< 



g: — Thr^wmrnrr- 




W-i"^ 



420 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





A "DUGOUT" AND BOATMAN ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER 



TRAINING RETRIEVERS 







''^Wkr 




SCENE ON THE UPPER ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS 



TROLLING ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER 





SCENE ON THE UPPER ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS 



NEAR LONE GUM TREE ISLAND, ST. FRANCIS RIVER 



THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE- 



\«~ ^^ J;5^i^'v:?c^'^ r^ 


:'' {r^^'i^^H^H^m^H 


^^^^Bhk''^ 






^^^J 




,..;gg^i^t 


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I^^B^'^il 




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B^^j^^^^*^2^^^^^^^^M 








FISHING CLUBS ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER 




%'^'ir^'ffy 








^ A ST. FRANCIS RIVER 
BAYOU 



' !?>?/ 



DUCK SHOOTING WITH A RETRIEVER 



A FAIR SAMPLE 





SCENES NEAR LAKE CITY, ARK. 



SPEARING FROGS AT NIGHT 



ALONG THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS 



422 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 



systematically and on business lines, would prove 
very profitable in this section. 

The increase in population for the entire state 
of Arkansas is 16.25 per cent., but the alluvial 
counties show a larger per cent, of increase than 
the average. Mississippi county, for instance, 
shows 40.82 per cent, increase; Craighead county 
62.20 per cent., and Pulaski county, in which is 
situated Little Rock, and which is largely alluvial, 
33.49 per cent. 

The population is a home-loving, church-going, 
school-supporting people, . and very kindly and 
sociable by nature. 

There is yet considerable government lands sub- 
ject to homestead entry; also, much state land sub- 
ject to donation to actual settlers, and a great deal 
'of railroad lands, belonging principally to the St. 
Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Company, 
which are for sale. 

The sawmills have invaded these sections for the 
last dozen years, and have cut many hundreds of 
millions feet of the fine timber which grows in such 
profusion; yet their work of demolition has been 
almost imperceptible. There are yet in the bot- 
toms of Arkansas between the Missouri and the 
Louisiana borders, millions of acres of the finest 
hardwood timber land on the face of the globe. The 
principal growths are the gum, cottonwood, ash, 
poplar, white oak, walnut, and cypress. The manu- 
facture of lumber consists in preparing it for ship- 
ment in the half-manufactured state, to other parts 
of the United States and to Europe. Barrel heads, 
staves and stave timber are sent in large quantities 
across the ocean. Lumber for all commercial pur- 
poses, some partially manufactured into box ma- 
terial, is shipped to nearly all parts of the United 
States. Indeed the timber supply of Arkansas has 
been so attractive, and sO' immense that it is largely 
responsible for the smaller systems of railways 
which are now reaching out through these sections, 
and as the sawmills become more and more numer- 
ous these railroads will keep pace, either in new 
roads, or in spurs and branches of the existing sys- 
tems, and when this rich land shall have been de- 
nuded of its timber, the fertile farms will thus have 
ample railway facilities to ship their products to 
the markets of the United States, as well as the in- 
comnarable svstem of river navigation which thev 
now have. 

To write up all of these counties and their mani- 
fold attractions separately would require very much 
space, and would really be largely a repetition. 



At the head of this article is given the names of 
the alluvial and semi-alluvial counties, with their 
population in 1880, 1890 and 1900. Maps accom- 
panying this review show all of the existing lines of 
railroad, together with many projected branches, 
and give statistics of population and assessed valu- 
ation. 

The development in the alluvial sections of Ar- 
kansas has brought into existence of recent years 
several thriving towns, and has increased to the 
dignity of cities many more which were but strag- 
gling villages or small towns before the levee sys- 
tem begun. For instance, Paragould, which was 
not given a separate mention in population of 1880, 
from a town of 1,606 inhabitants in 1890 is now 
rated as one of the most wideawake, enterprising 
and growing cities of northeast Arkansas. Jones- 
boro, which in ISSOhad a verysmall population had, 
in 1890, increased to a little cityof 2,065, and the 
late census gives it a total of 4,508. This shows an 
increase to two and a half times its size of ten years 
ago. It has all the characteristics and push, and the 
full complement of industrial enterprises that are 
usually found in a growing city. Situated on 
Crowley's Ridge, the alluvial sections on both 
sides, and in the midst of some of the finest timber 
lands in the Mississippi valley, its prosperity and 
growth have been natural and regular, and it bids 
fair to exceed in another decade the remarkable 
progress it has made in the last. 

In Mississippi county we see on the banks of a 
river a very great improvement in the county seat, 
Osceola, and a new town with nearly 1,000 inhabi- 
tants, Luxora, a few miles north of Osceola, which 
does not appear in the census of 1890. It has in the 
past five or six years sprung into existence, and 
become a thriving and growing town. 

Wynne, in Cross comity, with its sawmills and 
other industrial enterprises, has grown up as if by 
magic. 

Forrest City, Marianna, the latter on the Flelena 
branch of the Missouri Pacific, the former also on 
this branch, and on the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf 
railway, are rapidly growing towns. Marianna holds 
the record for the shipment of lumber and timber. 
It is near the St. Francis River, and sawmills are 
cutting away the fine virgin timber, and shipping it 
to all parts of the United States, and across the 
ocean. 

Other towns bordering the alluvial sections 
which are partaking of the impetus following 



Past— Present— Prospective 



423 











&' — i^»^— nil aoa^^^^^^l^^^B^^^ 




M 


i 








1 
M 


jtmtgmjjt^^^ 


^'> 






^^^^^^Hl 






1 



LAKE CHICOT, IN CHICOT COUNTY. ARK. 




COUNTY COURT HOUSE BUILDING, NEWPORT, ARK. 



/ 



oil 



V-. 




THE WHITE RIVER VALLEY 
ARKANSAS 



■> ... '■ 
A 




Past— Present— Prospective 



425 




THE FERRY ACROSS WHITE RIVER, NEWPORT, ARK. 




WHITE RIVER, NEWPORT. ARK. 



SCENES ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL WHITE RIVER 



426 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



the introduction of sawmills and the opening 
up of the rich lands are Marktree, Deckersville, 
Arkansas City, Lake City, Monette, Leachville, 
Blytheville, Tyranza, Harrisburg, Vanndale, Net- 
tleton. Lake Village, Marion, and others specially 
shown on the outline maps of the Arkansas and 
^Vhite River vallevs. 



Li the latter pages of this book will be found a 
list of real estate agents and others, who will take 
pleasure in answering any inquiry regarding these 
favored and fertile sections, and the State Bureau 
of L-nmigration and Agriculture at Little Rock will 
be glad to furnish full information to all who desire 
it. 




PASTURE SCENE NEAR PARAGOULD, GREENE COUNTY, ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



427 




THE VALLEY OF THE ARKANSAS RIVER 



(Showing North to Little Rock.) 



428 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




<=1-EV£lAND ! '- ' ^ 



JEFFERSON AND PULASKI COUNTIES 

ARKANSAS 



(Scale Reduced } 
For Population, see page 352. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



429 




LOGGING IN THE ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 




~tr 



COTTON PLANTATION IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY 




COTTON PICKING IN THE ARKANSAS VALLEY, ARKANSAS. 




A HAPPY LITTLE ARKANSAS NIGGER." 

SCENES IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY 



Past— Present— Prospective 



431 




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4 



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CO 



432 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





W. B. ALEXANDER 
Mayor of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. 



GEORGE R. BROWN 
Secretary Little Rocli Board of Trade. 





FRED FOX 

President Pine Bluff Commercial League. 



E. D. RUSSELL 
Secretary Pine Bluff Commercial League. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



433 



PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 



Pine Bluff is the capital of Jefifei-son, the banner 
cotton-producing county of the world, as attested 
by the World's Fair first premiums and awards for 
long and short staple cotton. The city is located 
on the south bank of the Arkansas River, at the 
head of low-water navigation. A line of steamers 
ply between Pine Bluff and Memphis, giving 
healthful competition. 

Four railroads enter Pine Bluff, namely : The 
Missouri Pacific, the St. Louis-Southwestern, the 
Pine Bluff-Arkansas River, and the Pine Bluff & 
AVestern. The two former are trunk lines, which, 
through their connections, give easy access to all 
parts of the United States. The two latter are 
short lines, extending through the great agricul- 
tural and timber sections of the county. All have 
unexcelled depot and terminal facilities within the 
corporate limits of the city. 

The main shops of the St. Louis Southwestern 
Railway Co., the largest industrial plant in the 
South, are located at Pine Bluff. Among the other 
industries may be mentioned four large saw and 
planing mills, with combined daily capacity of 
700,000 feet of lumber, two extensive cotton-oil 
mills, two modern cotton compresses, large foundry 
and machine shops, a splendid system of water 
works, gas and electric-lighting plants, the largest 
ice factory and cold storage plant south of St. 
Louis, two stave mills, and many other manufac- 
tories, too numerous for special mention here. 

The citizens of Pine Bluff enjoy the inestimable 
benefits of a splendid system of sewerage, which 
has done much to^ reduce the already low mortality 
rate. The health of the city is fully attested by 
the fact that in 1898, of the 2,500 children en- 
rolled in the public schools, not a single death oc- 
curred. 

Pine Bluft has two splendid systems of telephone, 
namely: The Pine Bluff Telephone Co., and the 
Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Co. The 
former is owned and operated by local parties, and, 
in addition to its city exchange, operates a long- 
distance line, reaching many points in Jefferson 
and adjoining counties. The latter, in addition to 
its local exchange, extends its lines to more than 



fifty towns and cities within the State, and affords 
direct communication with St. Louis, Memphis, 
Chicago and New York. 

The Postal Telegraph-Cable Co., and the West- 
ern Union Telegraph Co. serve this point, which is 
a guai'anty that the facilities for telegraphing are 
unsurpassed by those of any city in the world. 

Pine Bluff has four solid and conservative banks 
to assist her business men, when necessary, in the 
conduct of their large industrial and commercial 
undertakings. The aggregate capital stock of the 
four amounts to $-100,000, with deposits, as shown 
by their last cjuarterly statements, approximating 
$1,750,000. 

The jobbing trade of Pine Bluff has kept pace 
with her increasing importance in other respects. 
The competition among the wholesale merchants is 
lively and capital ample, which attracts to this mar- 
ket many of the largest buyers in south Arkansas 
and north Louisiana. 

The annual cotton receipts amount to 100,000 
bales, and the city has the largest incoming and 
outgoing tonnage of any city in the State. The 
wholesale mercantile houses do an annual business 
of $15,000,000. 

If the saying that the retail trade of a city or town 
is the pulse to its commercial character be true, 
then Pine Bluff holds first place among the cities 
of the South. 

The citizens engaged in the retail trade are 
among the most intelligent and progressive, and 
the benefits they enjoy by reason of the large pay- 
rolls of the various manufacturing plants, make 
them ever ready to encourage and give substantial 
assistance to prospective investors in any indus- 
trial line. 

Under the able direction of Mayor Alexander, 
assisted by the City Council and a Board of Public 
Affairs, composed of some of the most successful 
business men of the city, a comprehensive and in- 
telligent system of public improvements has been 
inaugurated, and the city's debt reduced to prac- 
tically nothing. 

The City Fire Department, under experienced 
and intelligent management, has done much for 




VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 




VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 



436 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



the preservation of property and the reduction of 
insurance rates in recent years. 

There are four prosperous and ably edited news- 
papers in Pine Bluff, which labor for the advance- 
ment of every enterprise and interest touching the 
general progress and prosperity of the city and 
State. 

The hotel accommodations of Pine Bluff are 
ample and frrst-class. 

The rate of taxation for State, county and mu- 
nicipal purposes is twenty-two and one-half mills 
on the dollar. 

Pine Bluff is a city of churches, as well as 
schools and commerce, and her citizens are noted 
for tlie pride they take in their religious, as well as 
their educational and commercial institutions. Al- 
most all denominations are represented within her 
corporate limits, and many of them have magnifi- 
cent and stately church edifices. 

No city in the United States has better public or 
private schools than Pine Bluff.: Of the Public 
School buildings, eight in number, seven are sub- 
stantially built of brick and stone. 

Annunciation Academy, which is a Catholic 
school, under the management of the Sisters of 
Charity, is first-class in every respect. The Col- 
ored Industrial Institute, under Catholic auspices, 
and the Richard Allen Institute, under Presby- 
terian auspices, are doing much to educate, en- 
lighten and elevate the colored youth of Jefferson 
and surrounding counties. The Branch Normal 
College, the negro department of the University of 
Arkansas, was established at Pine Bluff in 1SS3 by 
act of the Legislature, and is the leading colored 
educational institution of the State. 

While the federal census for 1900 gives the city 
only 11,496 inhabitants, it is conservatively esti- 
mated that at least 1,000 persons living within the 
corporate limits of the city were overlooked by the 
enumerators. This is due largely to the fact that 
at the time the enumerators were compiling their 
reports, many of the people were out of the city on 
summer vacation. Besides this, the suburbs of 
Mechanicsville, Greenville, Battleville, Hoboken 



and Lakeside, have an aggregate population of 
7,000, and contribute to the commercial and indus- 
trial importance of the city proper. This is an in- 
crease of about 8,000 souls in the past decade. 

The Pine Bluff State Fair Association holds at 
Pine Bluff in October of each year, and is largely 
attended by citizens from other sections of the 
State. The exhibits at these annual meetings bear 
unimpeachable evidence of the great natural re- 
sources of this section. 

Among the improvements contemplated in the 
near future are : An electric street railway, opera 
house, cotton factory, furniture factory and pulp 
and paper mill. 

The citizens of Pine Bluff are ever ready to en- 
courage any enterprise in the way of manufacturing- 
industries or public improvements calculated to re- 
dound to the ultimate benefit of their city and 
county. The Commercial League of Pine Bluff, 
of which Mr. Fred Fox is the President, and Mr. 
E. D. Russell is the Secretary, and having for its 
object the advancement of the commercial and 
industrial interests of the city and county, the in- 
culcation of just and equitable principles of trade 
and the establishment and maintenance of uniform- 
ity in the commercial usages of the city, earnestly 
desires the consideration of the home-seeker, de- 
veloper and capitalist, knowing that the city and 
county present unexcelled opportunities for acquir- 
ing desirable homes and the profitable employ- 
ment of energy, capital and enterprise. The arms 
of the officers and members of the Commercial 
League, as well as those of every other citizen of 
Pine Bluff and Jefferson County, are ever wide 
open for the reception of desirable immigration, 
and such as come among them to live or invest 
their capital to profitably develop the unsurpassed 
resources of the city or county will receive a most 
cordial welcome. The civilization is refined and 
property secure — so much so as in any State in the 
Union. 

Persons desiring special information relative to 
Pine Bluff or Jefferson County, should address the 
Secretary of the Commercial League, Pine Bluff, 
Arkansas. 




STREET SCENES AND GENERAL VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 



438 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 



Little Rock is situated near the center of the 
State of Arkansas and is 287 feet above tide-water. 
Ten years ago it had a population of 25,874. The 
recently announced report of the census bureau 
gives it 38,307, a gain of 48.05 per cent for the 
decade. This does not include the population of 
that part of the city on the north side of the river 
known as Baring Cross, which has a distinct muni- 
cipal government. 

The bank clearings and the cotton receipts are 
well in line with the increase in population, both 
running about fifty per cent. In real-estate the ag- 
gregate business is about $150,000 a month. Dur- 
ing the last eighteen months, according tO' report 
of the R. G. Dun Mercantile Ao'encv, the increase 



leans, and the St. Louis Southwestern. The aggre- 
gate freight traffic for the year ending August 31, 
1900, was 67,320 car loads, exceeding the traffic of 
the year before by 6,137. 

The area of the city is 11.45 square miles, with 
225 miles open streets, of which 55 miles are im- 
proved. The streets around 12 city blocks are 
paved with granite; around 35 with brick; around 
59 with Telford macadam, and around 612 with 
gravel. The sewer system of the city has a total 
length of 22 miles. 

The Arkansas River is spanned by four magnifi- 
cent bridges at this point, three of which are owned 
by the railroads, and one jointlv by the city and 
count^•. The last-named has been recently built 




of the number of new commercial enterprises has 
averaged one for each day, including Sundays and 
holidays. 

The enrollment at the pulilic school at this time 
is 3,269 whites, 2,028 colored, a gain from last 3'ear 
of 211 whites and 30 colored. The total church 
membership is 11,300. 

During the past two years the transportation fa- 
cilities of the city have been increased by the ex- 
tension of the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf Railway 
and the building of the Little Rock and Hot 
Springs A¥estern Railway, aft'ording a total of eight 
railroad outlets. The Arkansas River is navigable 
to this point nearly the year around. 

The railroads are the St. Louis, L'on Mountain 
& Southern, north, south and east. The Little 
Rock & Ft. Smith, the Pine Bluff & New Or- 



bird's-eye view 01 

at a cost of $377,257.63, and saves to the people 
of the city and county annually over $80,000 in 
tolls. There are now 1,156 business houses in 
the city, three compresses, ten banks, one cotton 
mill, four cottonseed oil mills, twenty-seven news- 
papers and periodicals, two telephone systems, four 
lighting companies, a paid fire department, and 
a comprehensive electric street-railway system. 

The aggregate number of industrial plants is 157 
and the number is steadily increasing. 

The bonded indebtedness is only $118,000, and 
the floating debt $35,000, and the rate of taxation 
is low. The aggregate commerce of the city last 
year was about $20,000,000, and it is estimated by 
conservative business men that the total this year 
will be increased by at least $10,000,000 more. 

Little Rock is not onl)^ the chief city of the State 



Past— Present— Prospective 



439 



in size and in commercial importance, but it is 
also the political and social center and the site of 
all the State institutions except the University. It 
is located in the richest cotton lands of the State, 
and at the same time its western suburbs reach to 
the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. The coun- 
try to the west is hilly, mountainous, heavily 
wooded and abounds in minerals. That to the east 
is level, alluvial, without rock and susceptible of 
a high state of cultivation. In fact, the first rock 
west of the Mississippi River is found here, and it 
was from this rock that the city was named by the 
French when the settlement was known as "petite 
Roche." The rock in question is now used as a 
pier for one of the railroad bridges. 

The entire Arkansas Valley may well be consid- 
ered as tributary to Little Rock. The territory 
tributary to the Arkansas River may be divided as 
follows : 

Agricultural lands, 2, 57;!, 632 acres; timber and 
mineral lands, 2,342,834 acres. 



The situation of Little Rock is particularly ad- 
vantageous. To the west of the city are coal mines, 
to the south bauxite, to the north zinc and marble 
and on all sides are great fields of cotton, grain, 
and some of the finest orchards in the United 
States. 

In the undeveloped alluvial districts between it 
and the Mississippi River, as well as in the moun- 
tainous sections to the north and west, and in the 
river bottoms along the Arkansas and White 
Rivers, are seemingly inexhaustible acres of mag- 
nificent timber of all descriptions. It is hardly 
necessary to dilate further on the business energy of 
the city, since the fact stands out by its increase in 
population. 

A city of progress, of good morals, of schools, 
of churches, of factories, and of general commercial 
and industrial activity, it afi'ords opportunity alike 
for the investor, the active business man and the 
home-seeker. Little Rock is not content with 








LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS 

When the Government rises to the importance even a nearly 50 per cent, growth in a decade, for, 
of improving its rivers, ti is vast area will make with a full appreciation of the wonderful surround- 
wonderful progress. In f. ct, even at the present ings, the undeveloped millions of timber and agri- 
time, no part of the count) y is growing- more rap- cultural lands, she has placed her figures for a full 
idly than Little Rock and adjacent cities and coun- 100 per cent, for the next census, and is working 
ties. steadilv for it. 




1 United States court house and postoFfice. 

2 Pulaski County court house. 



3 Board of Trade building. 

4 One of the buildings of the Arkansas School for the Blind. 



5 Masonic Temple. 

6 Arkansas State Lunatic Asylum. 



VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS 




1 Levee from Rock Street bridge. 

2 Eird's-eye view of Little Rock- 

3 Fifth street east from Masonic Temple. 



4 Arkansas River from Rock street bridge. 

5 View west from Centennial School. 

6 View east from Centennial School. 

VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 



7 Main street south from Masonic Temple. 

8 Free bridge. 

9 Main street from Fourth street south. 




1 Packing cotton near Little Rock. 3 Southern cotton oil mill. 

2 Cotton market at the Board of Trade. 4 Consumers' cotton oil mill 

7 Railroad bridge in course of construction. 
S Union depot. 



5 Little Rock Brewery. 

6 Main Street south from Fourth Street. 
9 Choctaw depot. 

10 Union compress. 



VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



443 



lagbangb 




PHILLIPS COUHTTARK 

SHOWING 
COTTON BELT LE7BB 
DISTRICT 



For population see page 352 



444 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





JOSEPH C. BARLOW 
Mayor of Helena, Arkansas 



JAMES B. MILES 
River Observer 




MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT HELENA, ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



445 






J. B. PILLOW, President 



W. N. STRAUB 



xfi: 





AARON MYERS, Treasurer 



LEE PENDERGRAS 



BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS HELENA CARK.) IMPROVEMENT DISTRICT 



446 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River- 



HELENA, ARKANSAS 



The city of Helena is at the foot of the protecting 
hills known as Crowley's Ridge. It is one of the 
oldest towns in Arkansas, and is rated with the 
most prosperous of the same population in all the 
Southwest. South of the city lies the alluvial sec- 
tions of Phillips county, of which it is the county 
seat. This county is noted as being one of the 
most fertile in the entire Mississippi valley, and 
having a very large number of highly cultivated 
plantations lying in what is known as the Cotton 
Belt Levee District. Helena has two railroads: a 
branch of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & South- 
ern, known as the Helena branch, which skirts the 
alluvial sections of the Mississippi River on the 
north, running along what is known as Crowley's 
Ridge, and through a country heavily timljered, 
and of exceptional fertility. The Arkansas Midland 
connects it with the interior sections of the state 
which lie west of it. It is a cotton market of large 
and growing importance. As an evidence of its 
growth in this direction may be cited the following 
figures: During the season of 1892-93 its receipts 
were 32,330 bales. In 1897-98 it had grown to 
86,225 bales. The Helena Improvement District is 
a levee board which has charge of the protection 
of the city of Helena from the high water of the 
Mississippi River. The city is now surrounded by 
a splendid system of levees, built several feet above 
the high-water mark of 1897, which renders it abso- 
lutely safe from dangers in that direction. This 
protection is already having gratifying results in 
adding many fine brick business houses to the city, 
the improvement in that direction during the last 



few 3'ears having been verv great. There are two 
fine compresses in the city to handle the large re- 
ceipts of the fleecy staple. It has four oil mills — ■ 
the City Oil Works, the Farmers' Oil Works, the 
Arkansas Mill and the New South — all of which 
are in a prosperous condition, and most of the capi- 
tal stock is held by citizens of Helena. There 
are also several large wood-working* plants of vari- 
ous kinds, such as lumber mills, stave factories, a 
box factory, and other manufactures of lumber in 
various forms. One of the most important indus- 
tries is the Straub Pressed Brick Works, which 
ships its product to various sections of the country. 
Commercially speaking, it has a full complement of 
wholesale and retail houses, and does a large busi- 
ness of both kinds. It has three banks — the First 
National, the Bank of Helena, and the People's 
Savings Bank and Trust Company — which have 
ample capital to handle the large commercial and 
manufacturing business of the city. In churches 
and educational institutions it is fully abreast with 
places of its size, and a handsome United States 
l)uilding has been erected here for some years. An 
ample water supply for the city is afforded by a 
splendid system of water-works. The city also has 
a fine electric light and power plant. A move has 
been made recently in the direction of establish- 
ment of a comprehensive sewerage system. This is 
in the course of construction, and with the comple- 
tion of this important improvement Helena will 
rank in its various facilities as a city of modern con- 
\-eniences and conditions. 




1 B!rd's-Eye View of City 3 Government Building 

2 Street Scene 7 Public School Building 

4, S, 6, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 Views of High Water, 1897 



HELENA, ARKANSAS 



448 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




SOME OF THE PRETTY RESIDENCES OF HELENA, ARK. 



£.A..ji.ite^ 


pP^ 


^H 


L, ' ^" . 




THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE -ARKANSAS SCENES 



THE 

ALLUVIAL 

COUNTIES 

OF 

TENNESSEE 




EXTENT AND VALUATION OF ALLUVIAL AND PARTLY 
ALLUVIAL COUNTIES 

Counties 1880 1890 1899 

Obion County 12,829,560 fc. 905.965 $4,659,935 

Area, 339,439 acres, 40 per cent alluvial. 

Lake County 580,695 839,123 979,28? 

Area, ic8,350 acres, all alluvial. 

Dyer County i,9i7,4i5 2,059,133 2,545,425 

Area, 3 13,779 acres, nearly % alluvial. 

Lauderdale County 1,456,207 1,460,852 ^ i.934,45o 

Area, 279,862 acres, about 20 per cent alluvial. 

TiptonCounty 1,990,322 2,041,565 2,149.390 

Area, 267,112 acres, about "j alluvial. 

The alluvial lands in this State lie in the counties 
of Obion, Lake, Dyer, Lauderdale and Tipton. Of 
these mentioned, Lake county is entirely alluvial. 
This county was formed by constitutional enact- 
ment in 1870, embracing that portion of Obion 
county west of Reelfoot Lake. In this county there 
are 10,000 acres of land above overflow, 85,000 
subject to inundation from floods by the Missis- 
sippi River, and 15,000 acres covered with the 
waters of Reelfoot Lake. 

Obion countv, which has a total acreage of 




THE ALLUVIAL LANDS IN 
TENNESSEE 



Past— Present— Prospective 



339,439, is more than one-third aUuvial. Dyer 
county has a total area of 313,779 acres, about 20 
per cent of which is alluvial land. Three-fourths 
of these lands mentioned will be absolutely pro- 
tected from overflow liy the Hickman, Kentucky, 
and Slough Landing levee, which will be twenty 
and one-fourth miles long. Part of this is now 
under contract and is in the course of construction, 
and will doubtless be fiinished within the next year 
or two. The building of this levee is largely due to 
the energetic and persevering industry of James C. 
Harris, who is at the head of the commissioners hav- 
ing the enterprise in charge. The remaining one- 
fourth of the 200,000 acres, wdiich lie in the alluvial 
belt in this section, will be greatly, benefited by 
lessening' the \'olume of water and breaking the 
current. Should the system of levee now com- 
menced be continued from the high land at Tip- 
tonville south to Ft. Pillow it would absolutely 
reclaim 400,000 acres of land, or 250,000 not pro- 
tected by the Hickman levee. In Lake county 
there are 30,000 acres of land now in cultivation 
which produce from 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of seed 
cotton, or an average of one bale to the acre. The 
balance of this area will show equal fertility when 
fully protected from the floods. There is active 
agitation for a division of the Illinois Central Rail- 
road around the river from Hickman, Kentucky, 
through Lake and Dyer counties to Dyersburg, 
Tennessee, with good prospect of being built. 

The population of Lake county in 1890 w?as 
5,275. It is now 7,368, most of which is of recent 
acquisition. With the finishing of the levees above 
mentioned this countiy will grow much more 
rapidly. The timber of this alluvial section is very 
heavy, and oft'ers fine opportunity for the erection 
of wood working plants. There are already some 
very large sawmills in this section. 

Tiptonville, the county seat of Lake county, is 
situated on a ridge or highlands on the Mississippi 
River, and is a place of considerable commercial 
importance. It has a population of about 600 and 
good banking and mercantile facilities. Its com- 
mercial, importance is greater than its population 
would indicate, as it is the only trading place of 
any importance in Lake county and the shipping- 
point for the cotton and lumber products of the 
county. 

Especial mention may be made of the city of 
Dversliurg in this connection, which is a rapidly 



growing city on the Illinois Central main line from 
Cairo to Memphis. The following short sketch of 
Dyersburg and Dyer county is furnished by the 
kindness of Col. Tom W. Neal, the editor of the 
Gazette of that city: 

D3'ersburg, on the Illinois Central Railroad, is 
located at the head of navigation on the Forked 
Deer River, contains about 4,500 population, is 
easy of access by good roads from all parts of the 
county; has three substantial church edifices, an 
Odd Fellows and Masonic halls, one of the finest 
and best public schools in the State, at which the 
children of the entire district are educated free of 
charge. The faculty of this school is an admirable 
one, and consists of seven first-class teachers. 
Hei-e we also have a splendidly equipped steam 
sawmill, a fine first-class planing mill, two news- 
papers, one of the finest steam flouring mills 
in the State, three hotels, two banks, a to- 
bacco manufactory, two wagon factories, a 
first-class factory for the manufacture of slack 
barrel staves and headings, a fine cotton seed oil 
works, with the latest and most approved ma- 
chinery, a new machine works equal to every de- 
mand made on it, and about fifty other firms. 

Dyersburg is fortunately located for a manufac- 
turing town. There are lands in Dyer county that 
will bring over a bale of cotton to the acre, while 
all of the land is very fertile, being well adapted 
to the production of tobacco, fruits, grain and 
vegetables. 

No town in Tennessee has a more promising 
future before it than Dyersburg. The shiretown 
of certainlv one of the most productive counties 
in the State^ — at the head of steamboat navigation 
on the Forked Deer River, which empties into the 
A/Iis,sissippi at Hale's Point — far enough from any 
city to prevent any dangerous rivahy, and near 
enough to enjoy all its advantages — the very liest 
facilities are now oflfered in this favored section to 
capitalists who desire to engag-e in manufacturing 
pursuits of any kind, and the citizens would wel- 
come and co-operate with any parties who would 
locate here for that purpose. Dyersburg is seventy- 
six miles from Memphis and is increasing in 
population, wealth and importance. It already 
feels the inspiration of a bright future, and the 
outlook says now is the time for capitalists seeking 
investments, or those in search of new, pleasant 
and profitable homes, to see the town and make 



452 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



permanent i^^■estments therein. Farmers seeking 
a Southern home will make no mistake if they 
locate near Dyersburg. Dyersburg- is also a mod- 
ern city, with electric lights, water works, first- 
class military company, and everything to entitle 
it to that appellation. 

Dyer county land yields from a half to one and a 
half bales of cotton, and from twenty to fifty bushels 
of corn per acre. Wheat is also very successfully 
grown. Plenty of excellent fruit is raised in ever\' 
section of the county, while the best grasses in the 
world can be raised in great abundance. 

There is plenty of the best wild land to be bought 
at from $5 to $10 an acre. In fact not one-tenth of 
the land has ever been under fence or cultivation. 
Improved farm lands are worth from $10 to $45 per 
acre. Society is peaceable and hospitable. The soil 
produces abundantly, and no one need remain poor 
who wall plow and hoe with energy and earnestness. 
As for health, the chances are as good here as anv 
place South. The people are strictly an agricultural 
people, raising cotton, tobacco and grain, and giv- 
ing some attention to raising cattle, hogs and 
sheep. Few horses or mules are raised beyond 
home wants, but some of the best farmers have 
embarked in the stock business, and in a few years 
many of the blooded horses and best mules of the 
country will be raised in Dyer county. AVater 
power is good and plenty. Fortunes can be made 
here by erecting flour and saw mills, while cotton, 
furniture and wagon factories, the raw material for 
which can be found here in abundance, would prob- 
ably be still better investments. Capitalists in 
search of a place to invest their funds should not 
pass over Dyer county and its shiretown. 

The assessed value of Dyer county in 1890 was 
$1,917,415. In 1899 it was $2,545,435, or an in- 
crease of nearly $GOO,000. 

Obion county, of which the enterprising and 
growing little town of Union Citv is the countv 



seat, had in ISSO an assessed valuation of $2,829,- 
5r50. In 1899 it nearly doubled, being $4,659,935. 
Union City is a well built place on the Nashville,. 
Chattanooga & St. Louis and Mobile & Ohio rail- 
ways, having many industrial enterprises, and 
doing a very large wholesale and retail business 
with the contiguous upland sections of Tennessee 
and Kentucky, as well as the alluvial sections of 
both states. Its present population is 3,407. 

Lauderdale county, which lies south of Dyer 
county, has a total area of 279,862 acres, of which 
not quite 25 per cent, is alluvial. It had in 1890 an 
assessed value of $1,460,852, which was increased in 
1899 by nearly one-half million dollars, amount- 
ing to $1,934,450. The county seat of this county 
is Ripley, which is a thriving and growing place,, 
showing- much industrial and commercial activity. 

Tipton county, of which the county seat is Cov- 
ington, has a total area of 267,112 acres. In 1890 
its assessed valuation was $2,041,565, and in 1899- 
was $2,149,390. The alluvial lands in this county 
comprises about one-third of its area, nearly all of 
which is overflowed in times of extreme high water 
by the Mississippi River, and no doubt the small 
increase in its assesssment is attributable to this 
fact. When protected by levees this county Avill 
show the same rapid increase which has character- 
ized the better protected counties in Arkansas,, 
which lie opposite. 

As before mentioned the county seat of Tipton 
county is Covington, which draws a large business 
from the surrounding- countn'. It is a place of 
growing- importance, and of considerable commer- 
cial and industrial prestige. Here there has been 
recently erected a large cotton compress, of which 
an illustration is given. 

A map is given, in this connection, of the section 
lying jjetween Cairo and Memphis, showing the 
alluvial sections of Tennessee and Kentucky; also 
maps of the difi'erent counties accompanied by sta- 
tistics of population of 1880, 1890 and 1900. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



453 




1 Court House. 



2 Elevator. 



3 Bird's-Eye View from Railroad. 



4 Citizens Bank 



VIEWS OF DYERSBURG, TENNESSEE 




I Court House. 2 Ripley Oil Works. 

VIEWS OF RIPLEY, TENNESSEE 



3 Main Street 



454 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




LAKE, OBION and DYER COUNTIES, 

TENNESSEE 

For Population and other statistics, see 
Pages 351 and 449. 



FULTON COUNTY, KENTUCKY 

Population, 1900 1 1 ^540 

1S90 10,005 

1S80 7,977 



D y 



LAUDERDALE, TIPTON 
SHELBY COUNTIES, I 
TENNESSEE 

For Population and other statistics 
Pages 351 and 449. 




456 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 





JAMES C. HARRIS 
President Hickman and Tiptonville Levee Association 



COURT HOUSE AT TIPTONVILLE, TENNESSEE 




STREET SCENE AT TIPTONVILLE, TENNESSEE 



Past— Present— Prospective 



457 




I Court House. 



3 Cotton Compress. 



2 Street View 



VIEWS OF COVINGTON, TENN. 




DE SOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 




Title Page to Memphis 
Compliments oF Memphis Sc.'m;:ar 



Past— Present— Prospective 



459 



MEMPHIS 



By GEORGE W. FOOSHE, Commercial Editor Scimitar 





GEORGE W. FOOSHE 

The growth of Memphis from the small Indian 
trading post awa}' back in the vounger days of the 
century now ending to the great commercial city 
which she is to-daj', is one of the most remarkable 
in the history of Southern cities, and nothing shOws 
more conclusively the wonderful possibilities of the 
Riparian Lands of the Mississippi and the great 
country that belongs to the basin in which Memphis 
lies than does the steady gxowth and development 
of the "Queen of the Valley," the Bluff City over- 
looking the father of waters. 

There is one remarkable feature about Memphis 
that belongs to scarcel}' another Southern city. She 
is simply a commercial city and nothing more, and 
she has always been. Other cities boast proudly 
of their numerous libraries, art studios, educational 
institutions, and all that goes to make up the 
cultural element that bring's into existence what 
Matthew Arnold has so beautifully called "Sweet- 
ness and light," but Memphis, while not neglecting 
the cultural altogether, has centered almost her en- 
tire energy and strength in the development of her 
commercial interests, until to-day thei'e is not an- 



other city of the same population in the United 
States that transacts the same amount of business 
per capita as does this city. 

There has been nothing of the mushroom growth 
that has characterized some of the Western cities, 
nor has there been any of the backward movement 
in the path of progress that belongs to some of the 
distinctly Southern ones. The development has 
been slow, steady, strong and powerful enough to 
overcome the ravages of war as well as the pesti- 
lences that God has sometimes visited upon her. 
Yellow fever came near wrecking her and turning 
the tide of progress from the flow to the ebb, but 
since the late Col. Geo. E. Waring did his wonder- 
ful engineering work after the scourge of 1878, and 
now that sewers traverse almost every portion of 
the city, and now that the health authorities have 
the ability to enforce quarantine restrictions against 
all epidemics at other points, the city is as healthy 
as any in the South, and business enterprises once 
afraid of Memphis are now eagerly seeking to locate 
here. 

While the city has assumed a high rank among 
all industrial and commercial cities, and while every 
branch of trade and industry has made its con- 
tribution tO' the high position the city occupies, the 
cotton trade, the cotton seed oil business and the 
lumber trade stand pre-eminent among these. 

Memphis has for long years enjoyed the distinc- 
tion of being the largest inland cotton market in 
the world. Situated in the most fertile section 
of the cotton belt, standing at the head of all 
the year round navigation of the Mississippi, she 
was the natural market to which the planter of ante 
bellum days brought his cotton on wagons or on 
the occasional steamers that plied between New 
Orleans and St. Louis. She was the nearest large 
city in reach of the planter, and the only one from 
which he could carry back the supplies and im- 
plements necessary for the conducting of fanning 
operations. Time was not a factor in those days. 



But there came a change with the war. 



The large 



460 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



plantations were broken into smaller ones, and mar- 
keting had to be rapid. The river packets were in- 
creased in number. At the same time the building 
of railroads received a wonderful impetus from the 
development of the cotton growing industr};-, and 
those that sought the trade of the territory had 
their lines to pass through this city. 

Time became a consideration, and planters, in- 
stead of coming to this city to sell their cotton, 
consigned it tO' factors here, who sold it for them 
on commission. The business was of rapid growth 
until now there are 55 sellers or factors in this 
city, with warehouses of sufficient capacity to shelter 
all the cotton that finds its way to this city. The 
eleven lines of independent railways, competing 
among themselves as well as with the numerous 
packets on the Mississippi, gradually brought about 
reduced rates, which brought more and more cotton 
each year, until the receipts for the year just ended 
were 596,545 bales. 

The establishment of the Cotton Exchange has 
done much to develop the market. Up to 1873 there 
was no exchange in this city, and Memphis played 
only a minor part in the outside cotton world. But 
with the establishment of this the city rapidly 
forged to the front as a distributing center. 

Every marketable variety of staple was to be had 
here with the exception of the Sea Island. "Bend- 
ers" from the interior counties of Arkansas and 
Mississippi were to be had in large quantities, while 
other exclusive staples attracted world-wide atten- 
tion. The Cotton Exchange was a guarantee of 
promptness and perfection of standard. Thus it 
came about that representatives of prominent cotton 
houses in the United States came here, as well as 
those from Liverpool, the continent and every 
manufacturing cotton center in the old world. The 
result has been the sharpest competition among 
buyers and sellers, and the shipping of cotton to 
the mills of the North, the South, Canada, Bremen, 
Havre, Liverpool, Manchester and other foreign 
cotton centers. The advantage of cheap rates, both 
to and from. Memphis, as insured by the competi- 
tive railways with their connections leading to all the 
Atlantic and Gulf ports has attracted both buyers 
-and sellers here, since cotton can often be shipped 
direct to foreign ports at lower rates than from New 
Orleans and other port cities. 

The large number of buyers (56) has brought 
about the most intense competition, which guaran- 
tees to the planter the highest price his cotton could 



command. Owners of the large plantations in the 
Mississippi Valley do not sell in the small markets 
within easy reach of them, because there are none 
of the cotton experts there who will give them the 
full market value of their holdings. They ship into 
Memphis, where men who have devoted a lifetime 
to the cotton business sample it and give prices ac- 
cording- tO' the grade of the staple. This has had a 
wonderful influence on the growth of the city's cot- 
ton trade. Year by year the factors handle a larger 
percentage of the cotton crop, drawing it from 
bounds even beyond the 150 limit allowed to the 
Memphis district proper. 

That Memphis is an important cotton center is 
attested strongly by the fact that there are sent out 
daily cablegrams and telegraphic advices to every 
cotton market of the world. Memphis handles 
about 6@7 per cent of the entire cotton yield of the 
United States, and in this capacity has a right to 
speak, and what she says has a powerful effect on 
the speculative markets. Bad news from the Mem- 
phis district is always the signal for a bull cam- 
paign, while too good reports from the section start 
bear operations on a scale that is rather dishearten- 
ing to the planter at the South. 

But what Memphis has been and is is not what 
she is destined to be. Her progressive citizens 
recognize the commercial importance of the cotton 
crop, and .since they do recognize this they are grad- 
ually reaching out into new territory, bringing larg- 
er receipts to this market. The last railroad, the 
Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf, taps a fertile section of 
the Arkansas side of the valley, and the receipts hith- 
erto small from that section are expected to add 
materially to the total amount handled here in the 
years to come. At the same time the trend of the 
manufacturing of cotton goods is toward the South, 
and this will help the cotton trade of Memphis to a 
degree that was not only improbable but absolutely 
impossible less than a decade ago. The Memphis 
wholesale merchants are reaching out into new ter- 
ritory daily, and wherever a Memphis merchant sells 
his goods the cotton from that section finds its way 
to this market and helps to swell the total volume 
of business done. 

The industry that competes in most active rivalry 
with the cotton trade of Memphis is her lumber in- 
terests. This is as yet a comparatively young busi- 
ness, though the growth of it has been so rapid 
that it has already assumed proportions that are 
by no means inconsiderable. Situated in one of 



Past— Present— Prospective 



461 





W. A. GAGE 
President Memphis Cotton Exchange 



HENRY HOTTER 
Secretary Cotton Exchange 





J. W. THOAIPSON 



President Memphis Hardwood Lumber 
Association 




LEE MALLORY 
President Memphis Merchants' Exchange 



N. S. GRAVES 
Secretary Memphis Merchants' Exchange 



462 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




J. J. WILLIAMS 
AUyor of Memphis 








THE LATE DR. D. T. PORTER 




A. S. CALDWELL 

a rman Committee on 
Greater Memphis 




BENTON M'MILLIN 
Governor oF Tennessee 



THE LATE R, C. GRAVES 



Past— Present— PRospECTivfc 



46^ 



the richest lumber regions of the world, with 
the thickly wooded timber lands in Eastern 
Arkansas, Northern Mississippi and West Ten- 
nessee to draw from, and with railroad facilities that 
offer the minimum rate to both the domestic and 
export trade, it is little wonder that the business has 
grown so rapidly until Memphis has become the 
largest hardwood market and the second lumber 
center of the world. The beginning of the industry 
may be said to date from ISSO, when there were 
about ten or twelve mills directly contiguous to 
Memphis. The firms which began the development 
of the trade, however, made little progress. There 
were not enough sawmills in this section to get the 
timber in marketable shape, while there were at the 
same time no special lumber rates either to the do- 
mestic or foreign centers. As a result the industry 
developed rather slowly. But toward the latter part 
of ISSO lumber men from other sections were at- 
tracted to the virgin forests in easy reach of the city. 
The firms that had operated in the extensive forests 
of the North and Northwest, on account of the ex- 
haustion of the timber in their respective sections, 
began establishing branch offices here, and in some 
cases moving their entire plants within the ^lem- 
pliis lumber district. With them came a wonderful 
increase in the number of sawmills, the handling of 
large quantities of lumber, the application for special 
lumber rates, the preparation by the railroads of bills 
of lading to all the domestic markets as well as to 
those of the old world, and the establishment of the 
business on the gigantic scale on which it is con- 
ducted at present. The railroads have been a big- 
factor in the development of the business, as well 
as the rivers traversing the lumber section. The 
lumber yards of the city are situated very near the 
railroads or the water, and from both they have 
received aid that has been of the utmost importance, 
the former in enabling" the wholesaler to secure rea- 
sonable rates to all domestic and importing centers, 
the latter in getting the logs down to the mills by 
means of rafts. 

It is estimated now that there are more than 500 
sawmills in the ^Memphis district, with an annual 
output of 1,825,000,000 feet,, and that the increase 
during the past three years has amounted to fully 
fi''/^ per cent. The business is now divided among 
the sawmill men, planing mill men, cooperage men. 
stave makers, box makers, wholesale and retail 
dealers. The lumber men estimate that about 40 
per cent of the output goes for export purposes to 



Europe and the United Kingdom, while the 60 per 
cent remaining is taken by the domestic consump- 
ti\'e trade. The gross business, according to figures 
obtained at the ]Merchant's Exchange, amounts to 
$8. 091, GOG annually, while the capital invested in 
lands and plants reaches .$4,306,175. The number 
of feet handled amounts to 337,333, 350, and the 
number of hands employed to 4,366. The number 
of cars handled reaches 31,574, while the average 
price per 100 feet is $28.77. These figures, it must 
be understood, refer only to the business of Mem- 
phis proper and not to the Memphis district, '\^^ere 
figures obtainable for the latter the total in every 
item would be \-ery materially increased. 

There is almost no limit to the kinds of wood to 
be had in the timber belt contiguous tO' the city. 
There is nearly every variety of tree for the manu- 
facture of hard wood, and though the blow of the 
axman is heard in the forests and the hum of the 
saw at the hundreds of mills, the resources of this 
belt remain practically inexhaustible and there is 
every reason to believe that Memphis will for years 
to come hold the position as the largest hardwood 
market in the world. At the same time, on account 
of the access to the soft woods of Arkansas, made 
possible by the opening of the Choctaw. Oklahoma 
and Gulf railroad, there are some well informed 
lumbermen of this city who are confident that 
Memphis will not only hold the palm as the largest 
hardwood, but also as the most important lumber 
center of the world. The most logical reason for 
this prediction is the fact that the giant forests of 
the AVest and Northwest have l^een exhausted, and 
plant after plant is coming to the home of the tim- 
ber just as the cotton mills of the North are seeking 
location in the heart of the cotton belt. 

The other industry in which Memphis ranks firsT 
among the cities of the world is the manufacture of 
cotton seed oil and meal, her mills annually furnish- 
ing more than one-twentieth of the entire cotton 
seed oil output of this country. The cotton oil mill- 
ing industry was attempted during the latter part of 
the eighteenth century, but despite the encourage- 
ment offered by societies for the development of 
arts and commerce, the business was not put on a 
practical basis until about two decades ago. This 
industry belongs peculiarly to the South, on account 
of the fact that the weight and bulk of the seed ex- 
clude shipment to other manufacturing sections, and 
Memphis, located in the richest cotton producing 
section in the South took hold of the business in its 



464 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



infancy. The first mill was erected before the civil 
war, and others, foreseeing the great field offered, 
put up other plants, till to-day there are plants as 
fine as any in the South, with a total daily crush of 
1,350 tons when their full capacity is used. 

While the growth of the business was rapid, and 
Memphis soon outdistanced all competitors, it was 
not all smooth sailing. There came a great slump 
in the price of the oil. The formation of the A, C. 
O. Co. saved the situation by putting prices to a 
higher level as well as by developing the industry to 
such an extent as to make it possible to use every 
particle of the seed, now known as the by-products. 
Machinery was manufactured for reginning the 
seed, and the oiTering of the "linters" on the 
market. The hulls went as fodder to the cattle, 
while the mills sold their meal for cattle feeding 
and for fertilizer purposes. At the same time a cot- 
ton fiber company for manufacturing the hulls into 
pulp, to be used as the body for paper, was estab- 
lished. Another source of profit came in the broad- 
ening of the uses of the oil, large cpiantities going 
into the manufacture of soap, compound lard, and 
into other legitimate trade channels. The Mem- 
phis mills represent an investment of more than 
$1,000,000 and do an annual business of more than 
$1,. 500,000, and both the investment and the annual 
output are gradually increasing. Two of the plants 
this year added 1,500 tons to their daily crush- 
ing capacity, while all the mills have recently put 
in the most improved machinery at a consider- 
able increase of cost over the original outlay ex- 
pended. At the same time new territory from which 
seed are being drawn and the more favorable rates 
from Arkansas are gradually adding to the increase 
in the annual volume of business. The output of the 
Memphis mills are sold in both the domestic and 
foreign markets. The chief American consumptive 
points are St. Louis, Cincinnati, Chicago, Provi- 
dence, R. L, and New .York. 

A source of pride to Memphis is her banking 
institutions. She has six commercial banks and 
five savings ones and these, especially the former, 
are easily able to finance the large deals made in 
cotton, lumber, groceries and supplies and in other 
less important lines. It is to their crecht that they 
have been able to weather the financial storms that 
nave swept the country in recent years cind that 
their depositors have not had to make howling 
rushes on them for the safetv of their monev. It 



is also worthy of note that during 1899-1900 the 
deposits in the commercial and savings banks 
reached the highest figures in the history of the 
Blufl^ City, -and that the business transacted 
through these banks during the same period, as 
given by the Clearing House reports, showed an 
increase in round numbers of $26,389,000. The 
banking business of Memphis is in the hands of 
wise, prudent and progressive men, who are always 
on the cjui vive for something better for the city, 
and now that the volume of business is increasing 
so rapidly, they are using all their efforts towards 
bringing a sub-treasury here. 

The grocery and g"eneral supply business of 
]\Jemphis is by no means inconsiderable. Trans- 
acting a business of $20,000,000 to $30,000,000, 
she is recognized throughout the United States as 
the ninth and at the South as the second distribut- 
ing center among Southern cities. Front street, 
the home of the wholesaler, is a beehive of industry, 
and the men who control the wholesale houses 
are steadily reaching out into new territory. 
Already they control all of Mississippi and the 
larger portions of Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma 
and Louisiana. The competition with St. Louis 
and New Orleans is sharp sometimes in parts of 
these States, but the traveling men from the two 
latter cities, with whom the writer has talked re- 
centh', acknowledg'e without hesitation that they 
dread more and more the successful rivalry of the^ 
Memphis salesmen. Memphis cotton factors are 
widening the area from which they draw tlieir cot- 
ton, and Memphis grocers easily follow into the 
territory from which the fleecy staple finds its way 
to the Bluff City. 

The manufacturing" enterprises of the city already 
pass the 500 mark, and plans are now on foot for 
the attracting of new plants here. The organiza- 
tions in charge of the eft'orts in this direction are 
well ecjuipped now, and, being in a position to offer 
the most favorable concessions in the way of build- 
ing sites, side trackage, etc., the best of results are 
expected to follow, and new enterprises are ex- 
pected to locate here much more rapidly than in 
the past. 

There are other notable features about the com- 
mercial history of Memphis, but these must be 
passed over with the cursory remark that they are 
steadily developing and that the Bluff" City, over- 




30 



466 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



looking the Father of Waters, is by no means in 
the zenith of her commercial development. With 
her progressive citizenship filled with pride at the 
rapid strides of the past decade, with her merchants 
and cotton factors reaching out into new territory, 
with new hnes of railway seeking this city as the 
"Gateway" of the South, with her levees improved 



by the aid of the Mississippi River Improvement and 
Levee Association, the past is only an earnest of 
what is. to be, and, while Memphis may never be 
the first city of the South in population, she will 
always be the "Queen of the Valley, God Bless 
Her," and stand ahead of all her rivals except the 
Crescent City lower down by the sea. 




THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT MEMPHIS 




1 Grand Opera House. 

2 Lowenstein's Jean Pants Factory. 

3 Cossitt Free Library. 



4 Tennessee Brewery and other manufacturing plants. 

5 Telephone Building. 

6 Bank of Commerce Building. 

7 Court Square and Main Street corner. 



8 Lyceum Theater. 

9 Front Street view. 
10 H. Wetter Factory. 



SOME ATTRACTIVE VIEWS OF MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE 



468 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




1 Murphey, Diebold & Sons. 

2 Hardwood Lumber Co. 

3 Cochran Lumber Co. 



4 Moore & McFerren 

5 Bird's-eye View of Lumber District. 

6 E. E. Taenzer & Co. 



7 Anchor Mills. 

8 E. T. Bennett & Co. 

9 Memphis Bending Co. 



THE HARDWOOD LUMBER MILLS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



469 




1 Scatchard & Sons 

2 Memphis Coffin Factory 

3 E. T. Bennett & Co. 

4 Memphis Stave Manufacturing Co. 



5 Cochran Lumber Co. Box Factory 

6 Alfee Heading Co. 

7 Charles Sadder 

8 R.J. Darnell 



9 Anderson-Tully Co. 

10 Tennessee Furniture Co. 

11 J. M. Darnell & Son 

12 Memphis Furniture Co. 




1 Crescent Cotton Oil Mills 

2, 3 Tennessee Cotton Oil Mills (two views! 



4 Richmond Cotton Oil Company 

5 De Soto Cotton Oil Mills 




1 Valley Cotton Oil Mills 2 Perkins Oil Company 3 The Southern Cotton Oil Company 

4 Phcenix Oil Mills S Gayoso Oil Works 

THE COTTON OIL MILLS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 




I, 3 Second Street, looking north. 
5 Madison Street, looking east. 



6 Main Street, looking north. 



2, 4, 7 Views oF Front Street. 
8 Court Square. 



VIEWS OF THE BUSINESS STREETS OF MEMPHIS 




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Past— Present— Prospective 



473 




MEMPHIS IN GALA ATTIRE 




ARTESIAN WATER WORKS, MEMPHIS 



474 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



475 




SOME OF THE HANDSOME RESIDENCES OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 



476 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 





TWO PRETTY RESIDENCES OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 






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ISSISSIPPI 




/"* 




TUNICA COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation tSSo $80^,251 

1899 1,491,552 

Area 271,731 acres, all alluvial 

COAHOMA COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 18S0 Jr, 773,829 

■' " 1890 2,604,250 

Area 333,521 acres, all alluvial 

BOLIVAR COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $^.5 '2,753 

1890 4.525.998 

Increase in 10 years nearly two million. 
Area 550,892 acres, all alluvial 

WASHINGTON COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation iSSo fo. 412,973 

" " " 1890 7,142,806 

More than doubled in ten years. 
Area 570,669 acres, all alluvial 

SHARKEY COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1880 ' 11,063.183 

1890 1.592. S74 

Area 287,005 acres, all alluvial 

ISAQUENA COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $1,454,966 

" " !«»,,,. " 1890 1,651,166 

Area 259,388 acres, all alluvial 

• QUITMAN COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 18S0 $1,738,677 

" " " 1890 1,073,358 

Area 144,334 acres, all alluvial 

TALLAHATCHIE COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1880 I975.097 

" " " 1S90 2,01,2500 

More than doubled in ten years. 
Area 404,373 acres, nearly }/o alluvial 



COUNTIES WHOLLY AND IN PART ALLU- 
VIAL, COMPOSING THE YAZOO-MISSIS- 
SIPPI DELTA, WITH AREA OF EACH 
AND ASSESSED VALUATION 
FOR 1880 AND 1890. 



HOLMES COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation iS8o $2,643,157 

" " " 1890 4,056,025 

Area 526,679 acres, '/{ alluvial 

YAZOO COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $4,626,335 

1890 5.367663 

Area 522,083 acres, )< alluvial 



(For Population see Page 352. 



Note. — While population statistics for igoo have been tabulated by the Cen- 
sus Bureau, the statistics of wealth, etc , have not. Comparison is therefore 
instituted between 1880 and 18Q0 dates. The increase in population as shown 
by the tables will serve to estimate the proportional growth of wealth. — £d, 

DE SOTO COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation $2,600,000 

Area 306,092 acres, }{ alluvial 



SUNFLOWER COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation iSSo $[,195,962 

" " '■ 1890 1,589,646 

Area 458,777 acres, all alluvial 

LA FLORE COUNTY 

Total Assessed Valuation 1S80 .$1,890,682 

1890 2.531.364 

Area 257,881 acres, all alluvial 



480 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 




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MILL OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO., CLARKSDALE, MISS. 




COTTON PICKING IN THE YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI DELTA 




■OtiSa^-i. . -r^ ^J^iimi^ 



NEW OIL MILL, TATE BROS., HOLLYWOOD, MISS. 



482 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



ALLUVIAL LANDS IN MISSISSIPPI 

The area of alluvial lands in the State of Miss- 
issippi, as shown by the authority which we are 
using (the calculations of the Mississippi River 
Commission as to overflow lands) is 6,926 square 
miles, or 4,432,640 acres. This does not include 
the alluvial lands of initial formation, which lie 
above the overflow, nor some which skirt the river 
in the lower portion of the State. • 

Practically all of the lands included in this com- 
putation lie in the famous Yazoo-Mississippi River 
Delta which heads a few miles south of Memphis 
and extends to Vicksburg, and lies wholly in the 
State of Mississippi. 

The first settlement of the alhu'ial lands along 
the Mississippi River was begun in the early part of 
the century. Between 1830 and 1850 large areas 
were bought from the LTnited States government 
along the river front in nearly all of the counties 
which border the Mississippi River and were cul- 
tivated largely with slave labor. Indeed, some of 
the finest plantations in the entire Southern coun- 
try were opened up and developed in this section of 
the Mississippi River Valley between the years 
mentioned, in the fertile Yazoo-Mississippi delta, 
as well as many of the alluvial districts of the State 
further south in Wilkinson, Adams and Jefferson 
counties; so that prior to the late Civil war this was 
fast becoming the great cotton-producing center 
of the country. 

During the war the levees were swept away, and 
for many years thereafter the delta was at the mercy 
of each recurring spring overflow. There was, 
however, much activity displayed in efforts to pre- 
vent these disasters, but withal many plantations 
were allowed to remain uncultivated, especially 
when the price of cotton begun to descend. 

We might say that the upward tendency of im- 
provement begun after the overflows of 1882, 1883 
and 1884. For instance, in 1881, in the county of 
Bolivar, which is now one of the richest and best- 
developed in the delta, there were only 1.50,000 
acres on the assessment rolls in the county, leaving 
nearly 400,000 acres of land forfeited, of which 
200,000 acres were held by what was known as the 
"Liquidating Levee Board" as lands forfeited for 
levee taxes. 

These levee taxes here mentioned consisted of 
an acreage tax and a bale tax as well; also, a direct 



ad \'alorem tax. The bale tax on cotton in the 
Yazoo-Mississippi delta has been as high as five 
dollars a bale at times, since the effort to reinstate 
the levee system was begun. 

The first railroad built north and south through 
this delta was known as the Louisville, New Or- 
leans & Texas railroad company, built during the 
vears 1883 and 1884, from Memphis to Vicksburg, 
by R. T. Wilson. This is now called the Yazoo 
& 'Mississippi Valley road, and is a part of the 
great Illinois Central system, of which Stu3we- 
sant Fish, of New York, is president, and James 
T. Harahan, of Chicago, second vice-president, in 
charge of the general operation of the road. In 
addition to the main line there was built, soon 
after the completion of the main line, what is 
known as the Riverside division, extending from 
Coahoma, in Coahoma county, to Rolling Fork, 
in Sharkey county, paralleling rather closely the 
Mississippi River as far as Greenville. Of late 
years considerable mileage has been added to this 
system in branch lines extending into nearly every 
countv in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta. 

Following the building of the Y. & M. V. came 
the Georgia Pacifix, entering the Delta a few miles 
west of Carrollton and traversing it, at its widest 
part, to Greenville on the Mississippi River. This 
railroad with a branch to Webbs, is now a part of 
the Great Southern Railway and is the coal carrying 
line which connects the rich coal fields of Alabama 
with the Mississippi River. At Greenville, its west- 
ern terminus, are located facilities for transfer of 
coal to barges. (See Greenville.) 

In the article furnished by C. H. West, chief en- 
gineer of the Mississippi Levee district, embracing 
the counties of Bolivar, Washington, Sharkey and 
Issaquena, and in the article furnished from the 
report of the chief engineer of the Yazoo-Mississ- 
ippi Levee board. Major T. G. Dabney, are given 
statements regarding the progress of levee bufld- 
ing in these sections, and it is unnecessary to re- 
capitulate these facts. 

As before mentioned, in 1881, 400,000 acres of 
land in Bolivar county had become forfeited, and 
were not on the lists as taxable property. In 1900 
there is only about 8,000 acres of land claimed or 
held bv the State, and not taxable. There are 
more than 400,000 acres owned and held by indi- 
viduals and citizens, and over 225,000 acres of 
cleared and improved lands. This will give some 



Past— Present— Prospective 



483 



DESOTO Coaz/jy^ 



//V., 




->s:/K/7 



TUNICA :COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI 

For population see page 352; other statistics 



page 479. 



484 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Rivers 



C A 




3 



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;, / Leverett^ ,0 i 

(TV Scotlandi 

G R E N /\ DA 



QUITMAN AND TALLAHATCHIE 
COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI 

(Scale Reduced.) 

For Population, see page 352 ; other statistics, 
page 479. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



485 



idea of the conditions which have prevailed, and the 
improvement which has taken place in this county, 
which is a criterion to the general progress of the 
Delta. 

Washington county, and the river along the 
Issaquena front, were even earlier in their settle- 
ment than Bolivar, and the same conditions ex- 
isted as mentioned in the description of Bolivar. 
By 1860 it had grown to be a veritable principal- 
ity in the beauty of its broad, highly-cultivated 
fields, palatial homes and magnificent plantations. 
Refinement and hospitality characterized the plan- 
ter. Indeed, here was to be found Southern hos- 
pitality and Southern culture in its highest devel- 
opment. 

There is an unusually large c^uantity of what is 
known as highlands, such as border the lakes, 
(formerly bends of the Mississippi River, which 
Avere made into> lakes by cut-oft's at different times 
Idj the river) and on the interior streams and riv- 
ers. Two of the most beautiful lakes in the entire 
Mississippi Valley, Lakes Lee and Washington, are 
in this county. Back from the river are the 
Bogue Phalia, the Deer Creek, the Yazoo River, 
:and several other streams along the banks of which 
abound these highlands, the soil of which is of a 
light sandy variety, easily cultivated, and very 
fertile. 

While Washington county is considered one of 
the older counties, its advance has been almost 
■phenomenal within the last -twenty years. In 1880 
the population was 25,367. The census of 1900 
■shows a population of 49,216. A more wonderful 
exhibit of its growth may be taken from the reports 
iurnished me by the courtesy of Major W. E. Mont- 
gomery, Secretary of the Board of Mississippi 
Levee Commissioners, which show that Washing- 
ton county paid levee taxes on 30,362 bales of cot- 
ton in ISSO, and on 90,423 bales in 189Y. Thus in 
seventeen years this county has increased its pro- 
duction of cotton over 200 per cent. In this con- 
nection it may be mentioned that Sharkey county 
has increased from 10,682 bales in 1880, to 29,884 
bales, or almost the same per cent of increase. 

Bolivar county has increased from 27,584 bales 
of the eai-Her date, to 53,200 bales in 1897, or 
nearly dotible. 

Isaquena county from 18,801 bales to 21,119 
bales. The explanation for the smallness of the 
increase in Isaquena is that it was almost as fully 



developed along the front in 1880 as in 1897, while 
the large increases in the other three counties are 
due to the building of railroad lines and opening up 
the back country through improved levee condi- 
tions. 

It might be well to call especial attention to and 
analyze the figures of the back counties. Sunflower 
county, in which are situated several of the rapidly 
growing little cities of the Delta, had in 1880 a pop- 
ulation of 4,661, while the census of this year gives 
it 16,084, nearly three and one-half times the pop- 
ulation of twenty years ago. Sharkey county from 
6,003 has jumped to 12,178, or 100 per cent. Quit- 
man county, from 1,406 to 5,434, or nearly 300 per 
cent. La Flore, which is especially favored with 
large streams, along which there was considerable 
development prior to 1880, shows an increase of a 
little niore than 130 per cent, having sprung from 
10,246 in 1880, to 23,834 in 1900. Tallahatchie 
has grown from 10,926 to 19,600. A large portion 
of this county is hill land, but it is safe to say that 
the largest increase in this population is due to 
development of that portion which lies in the river 
bottoms. 

A comparison, \\'hich may be instituted here, is 
very instructive in showing the relative increase in 
population of the river portions of the State and the 
hill lands. Take Warren and Washington counties 
for the comparison. In 1880 Warren county, in 
which is situated the city of Vicksburg, had a pop- 
ulation of 31,238. Nearly all of AVarren county is 
hill land; and that portion which lies on the river is 
nearly all below the beneficial eft'ect of the levee 
system, and has not kept pace with the protected 
lands in development. Washington county, which 
is wholly alluvial, had a population at that time of 
25,367, or nearly 6,000 less than Warren. In 1900 
Warren county has increased to 40,912, most of 
which may be attributed tO' an increase in popula- 
tion of the rapidly growing city of Vicksburg, while 
Washington county has increased to 49,216, and 
instead of being nearly 6,000 in the rear of Warren 
in population, shows an excess of over 8,000. 

Now one would suppose that with these rapid 
increases, and with the building of so many miles 
of branch roads, that this country would begin to 
be pretty well settled up, but such is not the case. 
There is probably not more that 30 or 35 per cent 
of the lands of the fertile Yazoo-Mississippi Delta 
that are in cultivation, and there are portions of it, 



486 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




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COAHOMA COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI 

For Population, see page 352; other statistics 
page 479- 



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PLANTERS BANK, CLARKSDALE, MISS. 



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GENERAL VIEW OF THE CULTIVATION OF DAHOA^EY, THE LARGES 




CULTIVATING DAHOMEY PLANTATION 



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OTTON PLANTATION IN THE WORLD, BOLIVAR COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI 



490 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



MAP OF 

BOLIVAR. COUNTY 

MISSISSiF'PI 



B.C.JOHNSON 

c-viL cuoiHCcit AND surrVEvoR 

MCMF-MIS TE NIM 



Jrt.WEATHERrORD.. 

1CCHANICAI. CNOlNIE>*«~I> OnAUGMTSMAN 

ri^r-lPHIS, TCNN. 




For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 479. 



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492 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River:, 




THE IMISSISSIPPI RIVER AT ROSEDALE, MISS., SHOWING THE MOUTHS OF THE ARKANSAS AND WHITE RIVERS 




COURT HOUSE, ROSEDALE, MISS. 



Past-Present-Prospective 



493 




HOLMES AND YAZOO COUN- 
TIES, MISSISSIPPI 

(Reduced scale) 

For population see page 352; other statistics 
page 479- 




COMPRESS OF THE PEOPLE'S WAREHOUSE COMPANY, YAZOO CITY 









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BROADWAY STREET, LOOKING WEST, YAZOO CITY 



YAZOO CITY SCENE 





RIVER FRONT, YAZOO CITY 






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496 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi kiver: 



to use the expression lately made, "where a white 
man has never put his foot." Even between par- 
allel lines of railways not more than fifteen or twen- 
ty miles apart, there lies almost unexplored terri- 
toiy of the most fertile land to be found on the face 
of the globe, and peculiarly adapted to cotton rais- 
ing. These lands are heavily timbered with the dif- 
ferent varieties of oak, cypress, cotton-wood, ash, 
hickory, elm, gum, Tupelo gum, and various other 
varieties of hardwood timber. This country is 
being rapidly brought to the front, large tracts of 
land having recently been sold to investors and 
sawmill men, and many large mills of the latest 
type are being erected tO' cut into a seemingly in- 
exhaustible wealth of timber. While much of this 
timber is being sent throughout the United States 
in the form of lumber, seemingly the largest indus- 
try is cutting and shipping of box and barrel ma- 
terial, large quantities of which are sent to Europe. 

As heretofore mentioned, the lands along the 
rivers and bayous are sandy loam, as they have 
been made by the heavier particles of silt which 
have come down the river, and, by processes which 
have been explained in other articles, been depos- 
ited nearest the banks of the streams. When the 
water flows backward from these streams, losing, in 
its dispersion, its ability to carry the heavier sedi- 
ment, it still holds in suspension the lighter parti- 
cles, and these, as the water clarifies, are deposited, 
and have formed what is known as the "buck shot" 
lands. These lands are extremely fertile, and 
richer in decomposed matter than the lighter land 
along the front. They are not so easily cultivated, 
but they are ideal cotton lands, as they hold moist- 
ure well, and cotton planted on them rarelv ever 
sufl:'ers from drought. 

Most of the lands yet undeveloped in the Delta 
are of this variety.. Prior to the building up of 
the present admirable levee system, when the over- 
flow was almost of yearly occurrence, these lands, 
being low, formed a basin for the accumulating 
waters, and consequently could not be brought 
under the plow with any degree of security, but 
now, since the levee system has become so nearly 
perfect, and since the prospect of entire relief from 
water is so good, these lands are being rapidly 
brought into cultivation, and this condition is 
largely responsible, no doubt, for the phenomenal 
increase in the production of cotton above men- 
tioned, where, in Washington county, an increase 



of only 100 per cent in population shows an in- 
crease of 200 per cent in production of cotton. 

This increase of cotton production is all the 
more remarkable when we consider that much of 
the increase of population is in cities, and engaged 
in occupations of industrial development other 
than farming, such as sawmills, lumber, stave fac- 
tories, oil mills, etc., which existed but slightly in 
ISSO. 

Mention has heretofore been made of the small 
amount of State and government lands in the front 
counties, but it might be mentioned in this connec- 
tion that in the back counties, Quitman, La Flore, 
Tallahatchie and others, there are considerable 
school lands and State lands. 

All the counties in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta 
have railroads within their borders, either of the 
Yazoo & Mississippi Valley or its branches, or the 
Southern Railway and its branches. 

Quitman county, the least undeveloped of all 
the counties of the Yazoo-Mississippi Valley Delta, 
is the latest to receive improvements of that char- 
acter. A branch of the Yazoo & Mississippi Vahey 
has just been completed to Riverside, with a pros- 
pective continuation northward to Memphis, and 
a railroad is now being surveyed to run east and 
west through the center of the countj^ from Water 
Valley, Miss., tO' the Mississippi River. These 
two' roads being completed, the comity will have 
exceptional railroad facilities. While it has, as 
mentioned elsewhere in this description, increased 
300 per cent in population within the last twenty 
years, still its lands are largely in their virgin con- 
dition. 

There is a prevailing notion that the alluvial 
lands, or "bottoms," are not as healthy to live in as 
are other portions of the country. It is a well- 
known fact that all new countries north or south, 
east or west, especially those which have very rich 
soils, develop malaria as they are opened up to cul- 
tivation. A careful study of the history of various 
sections of the United States which have been set- 
tled up, show that malaria exists to a less degree 
in the opening up of the lands along the Mississ- 
ippi River than in the early days of Illinois, Indi- 
ana, and other States of like level and timber char- 
acter, and, while admitting the presence of some 
malaria, it may be stated that a great majority of 
the people never suffer from it at all, and there are 
verv few fatal terminations of diseases incident to 



Past— Present— Prospective 



497 



COAHOMA [ 




W A S H 1 N 



SUNFLOWER AND LA FLORE 
COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI 

[Scale Reduced; 

For population, see page 352 ; other statistics 
page 479. 




1 Street Scene at Leland 



2 Leland Compress 

LELAND, MISS. 



3 Leland Oil Mills 




1 and 2 Blrd's-Eye Views of City 



3 Main Street 



4 and 5 Views of Yazoo River 



GREENWOOD, MISS. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



499 



its presence. In those portions of the Deha where 
the lands have been opened for manj^ years, and 
which he along the lakes and rivers, an almost en- 
tire absence of malaria is noticeable. Recenth? 
there have been built artesian wells which supply 
the drinking water, which heretofore came from 
cisterns. These wells are contributing very much 
to the health of the delta, and the day is not far dis- 
tant when all the cities and towns and many of the 
plantations will be supplied with crystal waters 
from the bowels of the earth by means of these 
wells. The impression must not be made that cis- 
tern water is unhealthy, for, indeed, it is considered 
that rain water when caught at the proper seasons, 
and carefully shielded from any unfavorable con- 
ditions, is the purest water in the world. The only 
trouble which people experience in this matter is 
from lack of attention and care given to their cis- 
terns, and to the proper storing and protection of 
their water supply. 

In connection with the map of each county 
which follows, is given its area and population dur- 
ing the past two' decades, which will be interesting 
to show the rapid increase in twenty years. 

In an article on page 346, regarding the Homo- 
chitto Levee district, is given some description of 
the alluvial lands which lie along the lower borders 
of the State of Mississippi, and which are unpro- 
tected at present by any adequate system of levees. 
In fact, nearly all are v.-ithout any levee protection 
wdiatever. 

The value of lands in the Yazoo-Mississippi 
Delta varies very largely; some of the finest culti- 
vated plantations can be had for from $35 to $50 
an acre, while unimproved lands can be had very 
much cheaper.. It may be said that the market 
value of land in this delta has increased at least 100 
per cent within the last five years, and the next 
five years will probably show a greater increase. 
As indicative of the price of timber lands in large 
quantities, the recent sale of 150,000 acres in this 
section by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Rail- 
road Company to Messrs. George T. Houston & 
Company, lumber dealers of Chicago, at approxi- 
mately $1,000,000, is reported in the public news 
items. These are average timber lands, and this 
firm has bought them, it is presumed, largely for 
the timber which is on them, and that they will be 
thrown upon the market as farm lands as rapidly 
as they are denuded of the marketable timber. 



This is simply one of many large sales which 
have taken place within the last few years and indi- 
cates a good price for these lands, and also that 
the country will l^e opened up to cultivation with 
great rapidity. 

The Louisville, New Orleans & Texas Railway 
Company was granted a heavy subsidy in lands to 
aid the building of the railroad through the Delta. 
A large part of these lands have been sold, some to 
large investors who are placing sawmills in this 
section and cutting away some of the magnificent 
timber which abounds in such profusion; but much 
of it to small planters who are opening it up to 
cultivation. 

Some of the back counties, in which list may be 
included Quitman, Sunflower, LaFlore, Sharkey, 
and the alluvial sections of Yazoo, Tallahatchie 
and Holmes, as well as eastern parts of Tunica, 
Coahoma, Bolivar and Washington, are of com- 
paratively recent development; indeed, almost 
wholly so, except some portions lying on the high 
ridges along the banks of the rivers and bayous, 
which are always higher than the lands known as 
"buck shot" that lie away from the streams. 

As an indication of the development in these 
counties attention is called to the statistics of pop- 
ulation which appear at the head of this article, 
and the assessed valuations of many of the counties. 

NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI 

The city of Natchez is beautifully situated on 
the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River, and 
the fertile alluvial basin lying in the State of Louis- 
iana at nearly its widest part in North Louisiana. 
It had a population in ISSO of 7,058, wdiich had 
increased in 1890 to 10,101. The last census gives 
it a still larger increase. 

The railway communication enjoyed by Natchez 
is excellent. Connecting with the alluvial dis- 
tricts in Louisiana are two railroads; one termin- 
ating at Bastrop, which traverses or borders the 
alluvial sections of the State for nearly the entire 
distance. Another wholly in the alluvial districts 
extends to Trinity. These roads have their ter- 
mini at Vidalia, wdiich is situated on the opposite 
side of the river from Natchez. 

On the east, Natchez is connected by the 
Natchez & Jackson division of the Y. & M. V. 
R. R. with Jackson, Mississippi, where it meets the 
Oueen & Crescent and the Illinois Central. At 



500 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r 




VIEWS OF NATCHEZ, MISS. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



501 



Harriston, 25 miles out, this division connects with 
the main line of the Y. & M. V. R. R, north and 
south, thus giving quick communication with all 
parts of the country. The Mississippi River, of 
course, affords navigation all the yesLV round. The 
enterprising people of Natchez have their own s_ys- 
tems of steamboat transportation lines both north 
and south, which do^ a large business and are pros- 
perous. At Natchez is located two of the finest cot- 
ton mills in the entire Southwest. They are both 
solidly built brick buildings of large size, and fully 
equipped with the latest machinery. These mills 
are both paying good dividends, and are owned by 
Natchez people. 

Natchez being an old cit}', and a very wealthy 
one in ante bellum times, has many fine residences 
built by the wealthy planters of those days, and 
also many which have been built since the war, in 
keeping with her gradual improvement in popula- 
tion and in business success. In all the necessary 
adjuncts to the well-regulated city, such as water 
works, ice factories, compresses, cotton oil mills, 
€tc., Natchez is fully abreast of any city of its size 
in the Valley. 

Commercially, Natchez occupies a very enviable 
position. She enjoys a large wholesale trade from 
the interior both east and west of the river, and, 
through her steamboat lines, from both above and 
below along the river. Her commercial houses. 
both wholesale and retail, are numerous, and have 
abundant capital. One of the largest manufactur- 
ing drug firms in the Southwest is domiciled here. 
The banking facilities of the town are especially 
good, and the deposits in the banks are large. No 
city in the Mississippi Valley is more interested in 
the development of the alluvial lands than Natchez, 
not only those of Louisiana, with which she has 
quick rail communication, but also on the Missi.ss- 
ippi side in what is known as the Homochitto Levee 
District, which extends as far south as Bayou 
Sara. 

VICKSBURG, MISSISSIPPI 

AVere this an historical narrative instead of a 
■cursory view of present conditions, it would take a 
great deal of space to describe many things which 
have made Vicksburg famous. But our mission is 
not of the past but of the present and the future. 

Vicksburg in 1880 had a population of 11,814. 
The last census gives it l-kS.jl. This improvement 



in population has come through industrial enter- 
prises in which Vicksburg excels. Unfoi^tunately 
the overflows which have swept the Mississippi Val- 
ley have done their greatest damage in the neigh- 
borhood of A'icksburg on the Louisiana side, from 
which this city reasonably expects to get a large 
portion of its trade. These disasters have prevented 
the development of this rich alluvial section, con- 
sequently have prevented a natural increase in the 
population of Vicksburg which a development in 
this section would have brought about. That is, 
Vicksburg would have had a larger population than 
she now has if the farming trade had increased 
with the same rapidity as the manufacturing.- 
Another disadvantage under which Vicksburg has 
been compelled to labor is its distance from the 
river in times of ordinary and low stages of water. 
The cut-off, through what is known as the Grant 
Canal, in ISTti removed the business portion of 
Vicksburg fully two or three miles from the river. 
In times of high water boats can land at the old 
wharves through Centennial Lake, which was the 
former bed of the river. Some years ago General 
T. C. Catchings, the able member of Congress 
representing the congressional district in which 
Vicksburg is situated, secured from Congress ap- 
propriate legislation looking to the turning of 
Yazoo River, which empties into the Mississippi 
River only a few miles above Vicksburg, into Cen- 
tennial Lake, thence to the Mississippi some miles 
below its present mouth. This will afford all of 
the facilities which were lost by the cut-oft' in 
1876. 

Accompanying this article is found a drawing 
showing the route of the Yazoo^ River through 
Centennial Lake. This improvement is rapidly 
progressing to completion and will be one of the 
engineering- wonders of the United States, as the 
Yazoo is a river of considerable importance, and 
has a large volume of discharge. In fact, it is 
rated, next to the Red and Arkansas Rivers, as 
one of the best and largest affluents of the Miss- 
issippi in the South. With the building of perma- 
nent levees beyond the danger of possible over- 
flow, and with the natural improvement which will 
take place in the Tensas basin therefrom, Vicks- 
burg will enjoy a large traffic from that section of 
the countr}^ 

In both the commercial and industrial lines 
Vicksburo- is unusually strong. Here are situated 




1 Bird 's-Eye View 2 Court House 3 U. S Building 4 Episcopal Cliurcli 5 Distant View from the River 6 Cotton Picking on the River 

VICKSBURG, MISS. 




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kOLLlNG FORK OIL MILLS 



\SSA9u E N A 




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jYoKena 
\OBnerf"ieI|^^ONevsf fTown L.cJg- 

j3^SLCheha.w P-O ^ 



C L A \ 



WARREN COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI 

For population, see page 352. 



504 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




SOME LOVELY HOMES AT VICKSBURG, MISS. 




VIEWS OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY, VICKSBURG, MISS. 




THE RIVER FRONT, VICKSBURG, MISS. 




VIEWS OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY, VICKSBURG, MISS. 





i«'|ji* I 



B'NAI B'RITH LITERARY CLUB, VICKSBURG, MISS 



NEWIPIAZZASHOTEL 







MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT VICKSBURG, SHOWING CANAL CONNECT- 
ING OLD RIVER, AND THROUGH IT, YAZOO RIVER, 
WITH CENTENNIAL LAKE. 



508 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 

WASH 1^JG,"^0 M 







^ 




V- 



ISSAQUENA AND SHARKEY 
COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI 



For population see page 352; other statistics 
see page 479. 




AN IDEAL HOME AT PETTIT, MISS. 





AN ANTE-BELLUM SOUTHERN HOME 



A HANDSOME RESIDENCE, NITTA YUMA, MISS. 




AN ATTRACTIVE DELTA HOME, NITTA YUMA, MISS. 




COTTON OIL MILL, FRIARS POINT, MISS., D. A. SCOTT, PRESIDENT; O. H. JOHNSON, MANAGER 




SCENE AT NITTA YUMA, MISS. 




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MOOR HEAD COX TON MILl_S [^ 




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«L^Ai8^^ME; 




THE BEGINNING OF COTTON MANUFACTURE IN THE DELTA 



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HERBERT ESKRIGGS 
President Greenville Cotton Exchange 



EDWARD LUKE 
Mayor of Yazoo City 



W. G. BENBROOKE 

Mayor of Natchez 



Past— Present— Prospective 



513 



some of the finest oil mills and lumber mills to be 
found on the Mississippi River. Her \Yholesale 
merchants do a large business both by rail and by 
boat, while the retailers secure a good trade from 
that portion of the population engaged in industrial 
enterprises, from a very fertile hill country which 
lies contiguous to it, as well as from the planta- 
tions of the rich bottoms. 

Vicksburg has exceptional banking facilities. 
All of her banks are financially strong, and there 
are several. These afTord ample capital to move 
the heavy crops which seek Vicksburg as an out- 
let. This city has two commercial organizations, 
the Cotton Exchange and the Merchants' Ex- 
change, each of which has a large membership. 
Recently Vicksburg has undertaken a compre- 
hensive system of sewerage, and one of the finest 
electric street car services has been installed for 
about two or three years. In connection with the 
building of this road was opened up a park near 
the city. 

Vicksburg in the coming years will be best 
known to distant sections through her national 
cemetery, and the national park, which Congress 
has decreed shall be established here. The pic- 
turescjue hills which lie around Vicksburg, and 
which were the scene of the sanguinary conflict in 
the last war, will be beautified and kept for future 
generations in memory of the gallant deeds of the 
American soldier on both sides — of those who were 
in the trenches in defending the gallant city, as 
well as of those whO' made the heroic assaults on 
the impregnable line of breastworks with its rows 
of frowning cannon. 

YAZOO CITY, MISSISSIPPI 

Yazoo City is the county seat of Yazoo county, 
which is one of the wealthiest in the State, and 
next to the largest. 

It is built on the bluffs overlooking the rich 
Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, in which lies a portion of 
the county of Yazoo. 

The population of Yazoo City in 1880 was 2,- 
542: in 1890, 3,358, and in 1900 it shows a more 
rapid increase, having -±,994: inhabitants. 

It is one of the largest cotton markets in the 
State, and is doing a constantly increasing busi- 
ness. 

The Yazoo River is navigable all the year 
around, and has a regular packet company with 
headquarters at this place. 



It has fine natural drainage, and also a modern 
underground sewerage system. Artesian water is 
used exclusively. 

The city has three banks, the total capital stock 
being $200,000 : The First National Bank with a 
capital stock and surplus of $60,000, the Bank of 
Yazoo City with a capital stock and surplus of 
$110,000, and the Commercial State Bank with a 
capital and surplus of $60,000. 

It has the usual complement of wholesale and 
retail business houses and many industrial enter- 
prises. 

A library endowed by Mrs. Fanny J. Ricks, 
widow of the late General B. S. Ricks, is one of the 
features of the city; also, the $35,000 opera house. 

There are six miles of paved streets, electric 
lights and water works. 

A cotton mill with a capital of $100,000 is 
planned. The site has already been bought, and 
the factory will soon be a reality. 

There are two oil mills; one of the mills of the 
Mississippi Cotton Oil Company is situated here, 
and the Producers" company also have a mill. 

The People's '^Varehouse & Compress Co. have 
one of the largest warehouses in the South. The 
concern is capitalized at $165,000, all owned by 
home people. It has a storage capacity of 32,000 
bales of cotton. 

Yazoo City has railway connection north and 
south b}^ the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railway, 
and as before mentioned, is situated on the Yazoo 
River, which, with its affluents, have the full sweep 
of the western side of the great delta, and these 
give Yazoo City splendid facilities for the transac- 
tion of its present trade, and for an increase which 
must inevitably come. 

Yazoo City is fully abreast of other places of like 
size and importance in churches and schools. 

GREENWOOD, MISSISSIPPI 

This is one of the most remarkable cities in the 
delta in its growth and in the growth of the indus- 
trial enterprises which largely support it. 

In 1880 Greenwood had a population of 308, 
in 1890 of 1,055, and in 1890 its population is 
3,026, showing a most remarkable increase for the 
past two' decades. 

It is situated on the banks of the Yazoo River, 
and has railway communication by both the 
Georgia Pacific division of the Southern Railway 
and a branch of the Yazoo & iMississippi Valley. 




1 Southern Railway's Coal Tipple 

2 A Cotton Room 

3 Grand Opera House 



4 Planters' Oil Mill 7 Wineman Sawmill 

5 Goyer Co., Wholesale Grocery Plant 8 Residence of W. A. Eresman 

6 Leavenworth Sawmill 9 Church 



10 Paepcke-Leicht Mill (near view) 

1 1 Court House 

12 Artesian Waterworks 



GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI 



Past— Present— Prospective 

In 1896 its entire assessed valuation was $3 
357,494; in 1900 (in the space of four years) the 



515 



increase of assessed valuation has been $552,755, 
making the assessed valuation for the county of 
LaFlore nearly four millions of dollars. 

Greenwood has three banks; the Delta Bank and 
the Bank of Greenwood, each with $100,000 capi- 
tal, and the Bank of LaFlore with $50,000 capital. 
It has several wholesale houses, compresses, cotton 
oil mills, machine works and foundries, ice factor- 
ies, electric lights, and stave factory, and brick fac- 
tory, hardwood and planing mills, and several other 
industrial enterprises. 

A handsome school house is nearing completion 
at a total cost of $20,000. In addition to the rail- 
way facilities mentioned abo\-e, it has the Yazoo, 
Tallahatchie, and Yallobusha Rivers, which, as is 
well known, run through some of the finest alluvial 
sections of the State of Mississippi. 

This city has several fine churches, and a splen- 
did well-equipped public school system. One of 
the most attractive features of the city, which is 
becoming common in the Delta, is its magnificent 
artesian well water, which gushes out with great 
pressure, and is sufficient to. supply, by means of 
pipes, all the business houses and residences in the 
city. 

GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI 

Population 1880, 2,191; 1890, 6,658; 1900, 7,- 
642. 

In the description of the alluvial lands of the 
Yazoo-Mississippi Delta mention has been made 
of the remarkable increase in population of the 
count}' of Washington. Greenville, its county 
seat, has kept full}' up with this increase in the 
county, perhaps exceeding it in per cent. It has 
grown within the last twenty years from a country 
village on the banks of the Mississippi River, with 
a small retail business, into one of the most prosper- 
ous and growing cities of the delta. It is metro- 
politan in all respects. It has a waterworks sys- 
tem, affording abundantly the best and purest of 
artesian water; a sewerage system rapidly coming 
to completion, a fire department and a thorough 
public school system. It has several wholesale 
houses that do a large business. In fact the largest 
wholesale grocery house in the State of Mississ- 
ippi is at Greenville. There are five banks here, 
six oil mills and three cotton compresses, besides 



several sawmills of the latest design. This is the 
terminus in the alluvial valley of the Great South- 
ern Railway system, which afl:'ords direct connec- 
tion with the coal fields of Alabama. This com- 
pany has a coal tipple at this place, and within the 
last fiive years has built up a splendid coal business 
down the Mississippi River, handling- the .Alabama 
coal. The exact figures showing the amount of 
these shipments is not at hand, but it is verv large 
and rapidly increasing. The Riverside division and 
two other branches of the YazoO' & Mississippi 
Valley enter Greenville. It is in direct connec- 
tion with all parts of the Mississippi Valley by rail- 
way communication, and is admirably situated for 
the extension of its business. 

There are se\'eral new industries either in course 
of erection or contemplated. A cordial invitation 
is extended to capitalists seeking location for any 
kind of industrial enterprises, either in cotton or 
wooden manufactures. A cotton mill is one of the 
enterprises which has assumed tangible shape, and 
will soon give this enterprising little city prestige 
in that direction. 

CLARKSDALE, MISSISISSPPI 

This city is one of the best examples of rapid 
growth caused by the development surrounding 
alluvial sections, and by the building of new rail- 
roads which largely center here. The ISSO cen- 
sus shows no such place as Clarksdale. The 1890 
census gives it 781 inhabitants, and it was a busy 
and growing town then. The present census gives 
a population of 1,711 souls. Clarksdale is so sit- 
uated that, by means of railroad branches, it com- 
mands an important strategic position in the great 
delta. The Y. & M. V. R. R. branches out from 
it in several directions, and a rapid increa.se in pop- 
ulation, following the opening up of new planta- 
tions and new industries in all directions, must 
inevitably take place. At present it has cotton 
compresses, oil mills, woodworking industries, 
an ice factory, and other minor industries. It is 
one of the county seats of the large, rich county of 
Coahoma, and a fine court house adds to the 
beautv of the little city. Two sound, well-man- 
aged and successful banks afford ample capital 
for all purposes. This must develop into one of 
the largest cities of the delta. Its location and 
surroundings are such that improvement in this 
direction, which is now constantly going on, will 




GINNERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO. 







THE PAEPCKE-LEICHT COMPANY LUMBER PLANT 





OIL MILL OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO. 

INDUSTRIAL SCENES AT GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI 



Past— Present— Prospective 



517 



naturally increase with e\-en greater rapidity in 
keeping with the impro\-ement and railroad build- 
ing- around it. It offers fine opportunities for the 
investor, manufacturer and business man. 

Rosedale, one of the county seats, with its saw- 
mills and soon-to-be cotton oil mills; Cleveland, 
the other county seat, with its several industrial 
enterprises and its growing trade with the interior 
of the rich country wdiich is being opened up. Gun- 
nison, Shelby, Shaws, Benoit and others are among 
the thriving towns of Bolivar county. 

In Coahoma county. l:)esides Clarksdale, of which 
mention has been made. Friars Point, its first 
county seat, and at present dividing the honor 
with Clarksdale, is the oldest and second largest 
town in the county. It has a bank, an oil mill, 
and many handsome residences. 

Other towns are Lula, Jonestown, Bobo, Ly- 
ons, Coahoma, all showing an upward impulse of 
growth in keeping with the opening up of new- 
homes, the increase in the lumber traffic and the 
erection of woodworking plants. In Tunica 
-county, lying north of Coahoma, several towns 



show much growth and business activity : Tunica, 
which has several mills; Hollywood, where is situ- 
ated the fine oil mill of Tate Brothers, of Memphis; 
Robinsonville and other places. In the counties 
further west we find some rapidly growing places. 
Not only are there prosperous towns on the older 
railroads, liut even in the new, recently built 
branches, are growing towns, and industrial condi- 
tions which are particularl}^ gratifying: Moorhead, 
with its stave factories and sawmills, with its fine 
cotton mill; Indianola, the county seat of Sun- 
flower county; Baird, Tchula, Belzoni, Tutwiler, 
Webbs, Minter City, Philippi, Graball, Ittabena, 
Rolling Fork the county seat of Sharkey count)^; 
Cary, and in fact dozens of other rising places. 
Much of this development is the result of private 
ventures in railroad building, no less than three 
railroads, one from Rosedale to the southeast, 
another from Leland or Greenville to the east, and 
a third from Moorhead south. These were pro- 
jected and either partly or wholly built by their 
enterprising projectors. They all now form a part 
of the Yazoo & Mississippi A^allev R. R. 




REGISTERED CATTLE AS THEY CAME FROM THE RANGE AFTER WINTERING OUT. 

WASHINGTON COUNTY, MISS. 



PLANTATION OF GEO. M. HELM, 




\ 

I 



V »9^ 



r 



i-^-- 




t '. ^^t 



PARISHES WHOLLY AND IN PART ALLU- 
VIAL, WITH AREA AND ASSESSED 
VALUATION. 

(For Population see Page 352.) 

ASCENSION PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,038,260 

1899 2,444,431 

Area 373 square miles, all alluvial 



ASSUMPTION PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,014,370 

1899 2,557,120 

Area 327 square miles, all alluvial 

AVOYELLES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,980,924 

" " 1899 2,279,805 

Area 843 square miles, four-fifths alluvial 

BOSSIER PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,252,440 

•899 ... 2,357,760 

Area 773 square miles, '3 alluvial 

CADDO PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $6,036,449 

" " 1S99 6,952,200 

Area 852 square miles 

CALDWELL PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $648,600 

1899 856,886 

Area 535 square miles 

CATAHOULA PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,208,690 

1899 1,404,505 

Area i)350 square miles, J3 alluvial 

CONCORDIA PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,163,504 

Area 620 square miles, all alluvial 

EAST BATON ROUGE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3. 358. 810 

" " 1899 4,261,810 

Area 395 square miles, ){ alluvial 

EAST CARROLL PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,234,420 

Area 4co square miles, all alluvial 

FRANKLIN PARISH 

A.ssessed Valuation 1890 $743,219 

'■ " 1899 814,061 

Area 55° square miles, 73 alluvial 

IBERIA PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $2,085,259 

1899 • 3.878,027 

Area 53^ square miles, all alluvial 

IBERVILLE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 f 2.831.845 

" 1899 3,021,371 

Area 646 square miles, all alluvial 



Past— Present 



JEFFERSON PARISH 
Assessed Valuation 1890 foi083,975 

1899 .••■• 3.736,347 

Area 395 square miles, all alluvial 

LAFOURCHE PARISH 
Assessed Valuation 1890 $2,376,925 

1S99 •. ••• 2,560,334 

Area 1,024 square miles, all alluvial 

MADISON PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1899 jSi, 766,350 

Area 670 square miles, all alluvial 

MOREHOUSE PARISH 
Assessed Valuation 1890 J2, 106, 455 

1S99 2,II2,lS8 

NATCHITOCHES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 ^^2,789,460 

" " 1899 3,683,610 

Area 1,290 square miles, y^ alluvial 

OUACHITA PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 {2,890,408 

1899 3,601,045 

Area. 640 square miles, 73 alluvial 

PLAQUEMINES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,934,005 

Area 930 square miles, all alluvia. 

POINTE COUPEE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,574,508 

Area 575 square miles, all alluvial 

RAPIDES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3,516,700 

1899 4,604,575 

Area. . ._. 1,498 square miles, ^ alluvial 

RED RIVER PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1899 $1,003,490 

Area 386 square miles, % alluvial 

RICHLAND PARISH 
Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,260,898 

1899 1,296.733 

Area 578 square miles, }i alluvial 

ST. BERNARD PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 = $ 842,49a 

" " 1899 1,043,169 

Area 680 square miles, all alluvial 

ST. CHARLES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,347,118 

" " 1S99 1,831,120 

Area 284 square miles, all alluvial 

ST. JAMES PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,666,877 

" " 1899 2,098,826 

Area > 308 square miles, all alluvial 

ST. JOHN BAPTISTE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,164,290 

•' " 1899 1,683,078 

Area 190 square miles, all alluvial 

ST. MARTIN PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,408,320 

" '* 1899 1,904,200 

Area 618 square miles, all alluvial 



—Prospective 519 

ST. MARY PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3,385,360 

" " 1899 5,011,090 

Area 648 square miles, all alluvial 

TENSAS PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1899 Si, 410,810 

Area 612 square miles, all alluvial 

TERRE BONNE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,692,744 

" " 1899 2,493,049 

Area 1,806 square miles, all alluvial 

WEST BATON ROUGE PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,086,580 

" " 1899 2,306,160 

Area 210 square miles, all alluvial 

WEST CARROLL PARISH 

Assessed Valuation 1899 $538,855 

Area 380 square miles, J^ alluvial 



LOUISIANA 

Louisiana, the pearl of the southern tier of States, 
the mother of a populous g-alaxy of daug-hters, the 
possessor of the largest area of alluvium in the 
Mississippi Valley, the State from which the great 
Mississippi, througli several mouths, finds its wav 
to the sea, is attractive and interesting from many 
points of view. 

The romance of its early settlement, and of the 
"Mississippi Bubble," the antiquity of its cities, the 
ever-present interest in its quaint Spanish and 
French architecture lends charm and piquancy to 
its history. 

But this is not a book of history. It is a book 
of description. It is not a book of poetry, but a 
book of practicality, and therefore we must deal 
with Louisiana as she is to-day, and with her as she 
will be to-morrow when her alhnaum, the youngest 
land formation, but the richest on the American 
continent, full}'- responds to the efforts of the hus- 
bandman. Possessing nearly one-half of the entire 
overflow lands of the Mississippi River Valley it is 
the cane field and the rice field of our Southern 
coimtry. There are millions of acres of land lying 
almost on a le\'el with the sea which will, by drain- 
age and by land making- through some future sys- 
tem of hydraulics, become as fulh^ cultivated as are 
the fertile fields along the bayous and on the banks 
of the great Mississippi. When the levees shall have 
been built, like the dikes of Holland, beyond the 
danger of recurring floods, then will the river be 
permitted, under some intelligent system, to build 
up these waste places — the same process of land 




LEDOUX E. SMITH 
State Treasurer of Louisiana 




ALBERT ESlOPlNAL 
Lieutenant-Governor of Louisiana 




JOHN T. MICHEL 
Secretary of State 




WILLIAM \V. HEARD 
Governor of Louisiana 








WM. S. FRAZEE 
State Auditor of Louisiana 




'\' 




FRANCIS T. NICHOLLS 

Chief Justice of Louisiana 
Ex-Governor 



WALTER GUION 
Attorney-General of Louisiana 



Past— Present— Prospective 



521 



1)uil(ling liy which it was made wiU be continued to 
its perfection. 

About one-third of the State is aUuvium. In the 
northern part, cotton and corn are the chief pro- 
ductions in this section for, broadly speaking, the 
sug"ar beh exists only south of the mouth of the 
Red River. There are, however, a few nice planta- 
tions which culti^•ate sugar in the parishes of Rapi- 
des and Avoyelles, which lie north of the mouth of 
the Red River. Even the northern parts of the par- 
ishes of Pt. Coupee and East Baton Rouge, which 
lie south of the mouth of the Red River, is reck- 
oned as a part of the cotton producing district of 
the State. Below this to the Gulf of Mexico sugar 
and rice are the staple crops. 

There is, it might be well to mention, cpiite an 
■extensive gardening or trucking business in the 
southern tier of parishes, near the city of New Or- 
leans. Up to within the last few years the orange 
industry was very remunerative, with some fine 
■orchards through the parishes of St. Bernard and 
Plaquemine, and others lying on the southern tier. 
Two severe freezes within the last decade have near- 
ly swept these out of existence for the time jjeing, 
but experiments in the matter of protecting orange 
trees, and in producing, by grafting and experi- 
menting, hardier kinds give promise that the indus- 
industry will flourish again with a permanency and 
stability that it never had before. 

Cultivation of rice has increased even in the 
alluvial districts, while it might be added, paren- 
thetically, as this work does not include other than 
the alluvial section, that on the prairies of the west- 
ern part of the State this industry is assuming re- 
markable proportions, through the dig'ging of 
drainage canals and the boring of artesian wells, un- 
til Louisiana is easily the leading producer of rice 
in the United States, and this industry is yet in its 
infancy, as a large proportion of the State is well 
adapted to its cultivation. Rice has been reg'arded 
solely as a lowland product, but w-e must neces- 
sarily change that idea and regard it as a product to 
be raised on the alluvial lands of any part of the 
State. In the Ouachita Valley hundreds of miles 
away from the rice-raising- portions of the State, it 
has been successfully cultivated. A few miles below 
the city of Monroe is a rice plantation which has for 
the past two years turned out large and success- 
ful crops of this cereal. 

In these alluvial parts of the state are vast quanti- 
ties of hardwood timber, the cypress predominat- 



ing. There are at various points along the Atcha- 
falaya, the Teche, and in fact along all the bayous 
and lakes of this region, sawmills engaged in cut- 
ting and shipping to distant markets vast quanti- 
ties of cypress, and it forms one of the most im- 
portant industries of the State. The forests in the 
alhn-ial portions of the State, along the water 
courses, and in the swamps, are covered with moss, 
and its gathering and curing is an important in- 
dusti-y, employing thousands of people. 

Along the Gulf of Mexico, in the bays and lakes 
which mark the southern border of the State, are 
great quantities of fish and oysters, which also 
give employment to many thousands of people. 
The oyster industry is rather local at present, but 
it bids fair, under careful nursing, to be a source of 
great revenue to the inhabitants of the State. The 
area of sounds and shallow lakes, inlets, etc., which 
are adapted to the cultivation of oysters, is very 
large, in fact, the coastline of Louisiana is greater 
than that of any other State, save Florida. 

There is an error prevalent regarding the heat of 
the extreme South, and that as Louisiana lies very 
far south that it is oppressively warm. Such reason- 
ing is erroneous, as the water surface of the State is 
SO' great, and as in the summer time the south winds 
prevail, there is nearly always a cool sea breeze. 
The fact is, speaking of the climate of New Orleans, 
one might say that it is a perfect one in the winter- 
time, and pleasant in the summer. 

There are over 3,500 miles of navigable water- 
ways within the confines of the State. 

The Louisiana State Board of Agriculture has 
issued a truthful and conservative statement re- 
garding Louisiana. From its interesting pages is 
taken a description of the alluvial lands of the North 
and South of Louisiana, as well as some valuable 
facts regarding the raising of sugar and the possi- 
bilities of development in that line. 

ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI 
RIVER 

This region may be con\^eniently subdivided into 
three parts : First, alluvial of Mississippi River and 
its outlying bayous; second, alluvial of Red River 
and its outlying bayous; third, the marshes of the 
coast and lakes. 

This region occupies about 19,000 square miles, 
and its vast possibilities in the near future for sup- 
porting millions of beings are simply inconceivable. 
The lands of this section are now leveed against the 




C. HARRISON PARKER 
President Penitentiary Board 



J. Y. SANDERS 
Speaker House of Representatives 



JOHN MURDOCK 



Past— Present— Prospective 



523 



annual encroaching floods of the rivers which tra- 
verse tliem. Large sums are annually spent in en- 
larging and strengthening these protecting earth 
walls. When these streams, as the}' will be in a few 
years, shall be safely controlled in their annual 
rises, and the confidence of the people established 
in the ability of levees to thoroughly protect, then 
will a full appreciation of the intrinsic merits of 
these lands be realized, and high values be estal)- 
hshed. 

Dr. Hilgard speaks of this region as "the most 
fertile agricultural lands of the State, equalled by 
few and surpassed by none in the world in produc- 
tive capacity." 

The parishes of this region north of the mouth of 
Red River are East Carroll, Madison, Tensas and 
Concordia entirely, and parts of Morehouse, Oua- 
chita, Union, West Carroll, Richland, Franklin, 
Caldwell, and Catahoula. South of the mouth of 
Red River the whole of the following parishes are 
included in this region: Pointe Coupee, West Ba- 
ton Rouge, Iberville, Ascension, Assumption, St. 
James, St. John, St. Charles, Jefferson, Orleans, 
St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Lafourche, Terrebonne, 
St. Mary, St. Martin and Iberia. Parts of Avoyel- 
les, West FeHciana and East Baton Rouge are also 
alluvial. In treating of the soils of this region it 
would be best, perhaps, to adopt the local custom 
and call all of that portion north of the mouth of 
Red River north Louisiana, and all soutli of it 
south Louisiana. This should be done, also, from 
an agricultural standpoint, since the soils of the 
northern sections are of a lig"hter, hardier character 
than those of the southern section. Cotton is the 
chief crop in the former, while sugar cane predom- 
inates among crops in the latter. 

ALLUVIAL LANDS IN NORTH LOUISIANA 

Crossing the State from the 'Mississippi River 
westward along the Arkansas line, one encounters 
alluvial bottoms separated by spurs of hill land 
running down from Arkansas, until the hihs west 
of the Ouachita are encountered. Bayous Macon 
and Tiger are encountered after a journey over 
alluvial bottoms of eight miles from the river. West- 
ward of these bayous begin the bayou Macon Hills 
(bluff fonnation), which are here about eight miles 
wide. They extend in a widening belt to the south- 
ward eight-five miles, terminating in Sicily Island. 
Their widest extent occurrs just north of Winns- 



boro. in Franklin parish, and is here nearly twenty- 
five miles. 

Descending from these hills, going westward 
along the Arkansas line, the valley of the Boeuf 
River is entered. This extremely fertile vallev is 
here also about eight miles wide and extends south- 
ward, with about the same width until it merges 
into the valley of the Ouachita River, eighty miles 
distant. 

Westward of the Boeuf River "alluvials," we en- 
counter a true ridge of the tertiary formation 
stretching out from Arkansas well down into 
Louisiana, and cut ofT at some remote day from 
the main hills by the Ouachita River and its tribu- 
taries. 

This ridge has been intersected b)' bayou Bar- 
tholomew (which empties into the Ouachita), leav- 
ing a narrow tongue between it and its confluent. 
This ridge varies in width from four to thirty-five 
miles, and is known locally as Bastrop Hills, the 
town of Bastrop, the parish-seat of Morehouse par- 
ish, being situated thereon. 

The Ouachita River forms the western boundary 
of the flood plain of the Mississippi Valley, and 
borders the hill country (good uplands), of Union, 
Ouachita, Caldwell, and Catahoula parishes. Along 
this river and its tributaries, bayous d'Arbonne, De 
Siard and Bartholomew, some of the finest cotton 
plantations of the State are situated. These alluvial 
lands are in many respects most desirable, since 
their easy culture, profuse fertility and absence of 
levees (the upper Ouachita being above the highest 
overflow), all conspire to give profitable returns 
under good culture and management. The ter- 
tiary ridges mentioned above are similar to the 
good uplands described elsewhere. There are some 
"prairies"' scattered through these ridges, with soils 
^•arying from pure sands to whitish clays. In Ash- 
ley county, Ark., similar prairies, with the latter 
soils, have, by drainage and tillage, been made 
highly profitable. 

Seymours' and Dubull's, in northern Morehouse, 
and Prairie du Bois, in southern Ouachita, are of 
sufficient size to merit a distinct coloring on the 
agricultural map of the State. Prairies Mer Rouge 
and Jeft'erson lie at the eastern foot of the ridge in 
Morehouse parish. They are extremely fertile 
tracts of a few thousand acres each, and properly 
belong to the "bluff formation." The name of the 
former, Mer Rouge (Red Sea), is derived from the 
prevalence of a sumac (Rhus copalina), whose ber- 




HENRY C. WARMOTH, Ex-Governor 




JOHN N. PHARR 




JOHN D. SHAFFER 




J. E. LE BLANC 




J. G. LEE 

Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration 



HENRY McCALL 



Past— Present— Prospective 



525 



ries in autumn are Ijrilliantly red. This shrub, and 
a few hawthorn, are the only trees grown on these 
prairies. 

Tlie Mississippi River Commission places tlie area 
of the overflow lands of Louisiana at 14,695 square 
miles or 9,40^.800 acres. Thus nearly one-half 
of the total area given by the Mississippi River 
Commission lies in the State of Louisiana. 

Descending the western banks of the Mississippi 
River from the Arkansas line to the Gulf, no up- 
lands are found, and the entire country adjacent is 
wholly alluvial. Levees constructed and main- 
tained at public expense extend this entire distance, 
and protect the lands from overflow in high water. 
Examination will show that the highest lands of 
this alluvial region are immediately on the banks of 
the river. This is true of every stream that over- 
flows its banks in high water. It is accompanied 
throughout its course by a ridge, the resultant of 
the debris deposited by it in each successive over- 
flow. From this ridge the lands slope gently to a 
low-lying cypress swamp, which is usually the drain- 
age basin between the two streams. 

The bank of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, 
opposite Vicksburg, Miss., is eight feet above the 
banks of the Tensas, twenty feet above the La- 
fourche, and ten above Monroe, on the banks of 
the Ouachita. Before the days of levees, every 
overflow carried the waters to these lower levels 
and frequently filled the entire alluvial district, even 
up to the banks on both streams. These floods re- 
stricted settlement on these lands in the past, but 
now, with our system of levees perfected, it is ex- 
pected that they will be rapidly occupied. 

The soil next to the river is not only the highest 
in elevation, but is, as a rule, the lightest, or sandi- 
est — the amount of sand depending largely upon 
the size and velocity of the stream, depositing it. 
Hence, on the Mississippi River, soils too sandy for 
profitable cultivation are sometimes found. These 
sandy or loamy front lands can easily be distinguish- 
ed from the stifT back lands by the tree growth. In 
north Louisiana the tree growth of the front land 
is Cottonwood, which is supplanted by the willow 
on similar lands in south Louisiana. As explained 
elsewhere, the front lands are formed of the de- 
posits from the present river, while the back lands 
are the deposits from an ancient stream which ante- 
dated our present river, and one which possessed 
little or no current. They closely resemble the clay 
soils now being formed in our swamps. They are 



universally known in north Louisiana as "buck- 
shot" lands, on account of the excellent quality 
which they possess of crumbling into small round- 
ish fragments on drying — a property which gives 
them the highest agricultural value, since they com- 
bine the high fertility of clay soils with the easy 
tilth of light, loamy ones. The dark, buckshot soils 
are esteemed, for permanent productiveness, the 
finest soils in the world. 

Analyses made of similar soils from Mississippi 
by Dr. Hilgard. show them to contain the largest 
amount of plant food, and "justify the reputation of 
being the most productive and durable soil of the 
Mississippi bottoms." Unlike most other clay soils, 
they may be tilted at almost any time when the 
plow can be propelled through them, because, on 
drying, they crumble spontaneously into a loose 
mass of better tilth than many an elaborately tilled 
upland soil. It is of such a depth that the deepest 
tillage, even by the steam plow, would not reach 
beyond the true soil material ; and its high absorp- 
tive power secures crops against injury from 
drought. At the same time (owing, doubtless, to 
its being traversed by innumerable fine cracks and 
underlaid by gravel or sand), it drains quite readily. 
The front lands are also highly esteemed, and but 
for the proximity of the "buckshot lands," with 
which they are compared, they would be held of the 
highest value. Drainage and proper tillage will al- 
ways evoke from these soils the highest yields. 

SOUTH OF RED RIVER 

Here the scene changes. Both the crops and 
the landscape vary from those described. Sugar 
cane now becomes the chief crop, while the culti- 
vatable soil adjacent to the banks decreases in 
width as we descend the river. Above the Red 
River all of the so-called bayous became ultimately 
tributaries of the Mississippi. Below Red River 
there is a perfect network of bayous, leaving the 
river outlets to the Gulf for the enormous volumes 
of water pouring through the Mississippi in times 
of flood. Along these bayous lie extensive areas of 
arable land, cultivated in sugar cane, corn, rice, etc. 
Here, as well as on the banks of the Mississippi, 
extensive and highly improved sugar plantations, 
with palatial homes, large and splendidly equipped 
sugar-houses, and well arranged laborers' quarters, 
are everywhere to be found. Between the bayous 
and back from the main river occur extensive 
swamps of cypress and swamp cane, the latter less 



526 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




S O M 



For population, see page 352; other statistics, page 518. 




LANDING AT LAKE PROVIDENCE — TOWN IN THE DISTANCE 




THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT LAKE PROVIDENCE, LA. 







3 

a. 



o 



aHviHOia ii jo Hsiavj |gg Jina MYgLl ^| JO HSI'HVd: =■'= 



Past— Present— Prospective 



529 




O / Chocta 



CONCORD I A \M 



For population, see page 352 ; 
other statistics, page 518. 



530 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 

T E N^ii S A S 




For population, see page"352 ; 
other statistics, page 51S. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



531 



abundant near the coast. The land cuUivated on 
the river varies in breadth from one to three miles, 
while on the ba3'ous it is from a few hundred yards 
to one or two miles. Back of the cultivated lands 
are the wooded swamps, into which the drainage of 
the plantation is sent. 

Sometimes detached portions of high land, hav- 
ing no present reference to any of the existing 
streams, are found four to ten miles from the pres- 
ent water courses. They are usually covered with 
timber, and in clearing, the latter is burnt, hence 
such clearings are usually known as "Brulees." 
Again, small islands just up out of the marsh and 
abound in swamp cane, which furnishes excellent 
grazing for stock in the winter. 

To these islands, cattle were formerly sent in 
large numbers, and lience were called "Vacheries." 

As we descend the Mississippi, the soils are less 
varied in character. As a rule they are less sandy, 
and true buckshot soils are rare. The latter are 
probably too deep to take part in soil formation. 
Usualh- the soils of this region are divided into 
three classes — "sandy,"' "mixed," and "stiff." They 
vary only in the proportion of clay they contain — 
those with the least are cahed sandy, and those with 
the largest amount stiff. The mixed soils are inter- 
mediate in character. As a rule, the sandy soils are 
the most esteemed, being easier tilled and drained. 
Their relation to heat is such that they are the last 
to start vegetation in the spring and the last in the 
fall to be affected by frosts. The converse of this 
is true in regard to the stiff soils. Being dark in 
color, they absorb heat rapidly in the spring, and 
thus force an early vegetation. In the fall, on ac- 
count of rapid radiation of heat, they are the first 
to be hurt by the frost. They are difficult to drain 
and cultivate, and hence are not in high request. On 
the other hand, they usually give a sweeter cane, 
but a lower tonnage per acre than other soils. 
Mixed soils possess properties intermediate be- 
tween those described, and are very valuable. It is 
probable that for all purposes they are the most 
valuable of the three. It frequently happens that 
all three of these soils may occur in a small field. In 
fact, so frequent in the immediate past have been 
crevasses and overflows that the entire alluvial soil 
of south Louisiana may be ascribed to them. The 
original deposits made by the river when its banks 
were being formed, and before the days of the 
levees, are rarelv within the reach of the plow. 



Hence the diversification of soils within a small 
area. 

Numerous analyses of soils taken throughout 
south Louisiana have been made, covering every 
variety from the sandiest to the stiffest cla^■, and 
they all show them to be rich in the essential ele- 
ments of plant food, and, as a rule, require only 
physical amelioration (chiefly drainage and good 
culture), to produce excellent crops. Since all these 
lands slope away from the river to the- swamps, they 
can, as a rule, be easily drained by open ditches. 
Tiles have also been used successfully and exten- 
sively. Their great cost have prevented their gen- 
eral use. 

It would not be supposed that south Louisiana 
alluvial parishes, which have been largely devel- 
oped for generations, should show great increases 
like those counties in Mississippi, Arkansas, and 
Missouri, which are younger and have had less 
levee protection, but there are many surprises, no 
doubt, in store for even those who live in Louisiana. 

Take for example the parish of Ascension, one 
of the old pronounced sugar parishes of the state, 
and one generally regarded as well settled; in :!880 
the population was 16,895. In 1900 we find it with 
24,142, an addition of one-half to its population of 
the former date. 

And this is not due to the fact that it lies on the 
Mississippi River, for Iberia, which lies on the 
western edge of the alluvial sections has advanced 
from 16,676 in 1880 to 29,015 in 1900, a still larger 
increase. Ouachita parish in the Ouachita valley, 
Natchitoches,, Caddo, Rapides in the Red River 
valley, show the greatest increase. The three par- 
ishes named in the Red River valley have almost 
doubled in population. Nearly all of the towns and 
small cities show gratifying improvement. Louisi- 
ana plantation methods and the comparative ab- 
sence of general manufactures is not conducive to 
city growing, yet the towns and cities of Louisiana 
are steadily advancing in population in keeping 
with the general increase in the state. Many large 
hardwood lumber manufacturers have located in 
these regions, attracted by the magnificent wealth 
of cypress and other hardwood varieties of timber 
which abound in such profusion, and have either 
built up new towns, or materially increased the ex- 
isting ones near which they have located. Lutcher, 
in St. James parish, and White Castle in Ascension, 
are conspicuous examples of those built up by the 



532 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



large mills. Lumber mills have also contributed 
largely to the growth of Baton Rouge, Donaldson- 
ville, Plaquemine, Morgan City, Alexandria, Shreve- 
port and other places. 

The improved conditions and the increase of 
population in southern Louisiana may be largely 
attributaljle to the almost perfect levee conditions 
which exist below the mouth of Red River. That 
this view is correct is shown by the fact that the 
upper tier of parishes, which lie on the river be- 
tween the Arkansas line and mouth of Red River, 
show very little increase in population. These par- 
ishes are large and fertile; indeed, Carroll parish 
was the banner parish of the United States in the 
production of cotton, as shown by one of the late 
decennial census reports, but these parishes have 
been a prey to fref|uent disasters by breaking of 
levees — all of them except East Carroll suffering 
in that manner as late as 1897. The last named 



parish escaped the overflow in that year. These 
parishes, as well as in others wdiich lie immediately 
in the rear of them, offer abundant opportunities 
to investors in timber and agricultural lands. There 
are all kinds of hardwood timber growing in the 
great bottoms and swamps which lie in the parishes 
of the Carrolls, A'ladison, Concordia, Tensas, Rich- 
land, Franklin, and the lands when denuded of their 
timber become the finest farming lands in the 
world. Large bodies of these lands have been sold 
within the last few years at very low prices, and 
there is still much more to be had at figures wdiich 
will enable almost anyone tO' secure a fertile and 
valuable farm for a very small amount of mone}^. 

In the back of this book are found two pages de- 
\ oted to a list of real estate agents and men who are 
interested sufficiently in the good of the country to 
reply to inquiries regarding these alluvial lands. 




SOME LEVEE DEFENDERS— POLICE JURY OF CONCORDIA PARISH 




VIDALIA, LOUISIANA, AND SCENES ALONG THE NEW ORLEANS AND N. W. RAILROAD DURING THE FLOOD OF 1897 



■\ ^^ ^-'-^-^t*. ■'■ 































^^. 



"^m^^g 



jjist^ 



R I S II 







tsiQ^V- 




i S^f^a ^ ^;y,; ^:;jj',^.. 






NORTH OF RED RIVER 



534 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi kiver; 



For population, see page 352 ; other 
statistics, page 51 




Past— Present— Prospective 



535 




1" r i'0| Illation 



see p 'ge 3S2; other statistics, page 518. 



536 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- 



POINTE COUPE 




For population, see page 352 ; 
other statistics, page 518. 




CONSTRUCTING LOCKS AT PLAQUEMINE. ( Later scene shown in a group further on— Ed. ) 




SHOWING LOSS BY MOVING LEVEE BEHIND PART OF THE TOWN OF PLAQUEMINE 




BAYOU PLAQUEMINE, LOCATION OF NEW LOCKS AT TOWN OF PLAQUEMINE 



538 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



BATON ROUGE 



Population, ISSO, 7,197. 

Population, 1890, 10,478. 

Population, 1900, 11,269. 

The city of Baton Rouge is the capital of the 
state, and here are situated nearly all of the state 
institutions. 

, It is located well for a commercial city. Drawing- 
its trade from fertile hill lands, as well as from the 
rich river bottoms, its progress has been steady 
within the past two decades. The growth in pop- 
ulation, as shown by the census figures given ■ibove, 
testify to that. 

While the increase in population has been satis- 
factory, the increase in wealth and in industrial 
conditions and development has been proportion- 
ately greater. A recent bond issue of two hun- 
dred thousand dollars by the city, for public im- 
provements, has been wisely applied as follows: 
Constructing a sewerage system, $35,000; improv- 
ing and paving streets, $10,000; acquiring, by pur- 
chase, the city water-works, $35,000; erection Of 
a new city hall and school buildings; building- 
levees and repairing streets, $15,000; iron bridges 
and crossings, $10,000. 

In private improvement, the spirit of progress is 
equally manifest. The Elks Society have built a 
tine opera-house, several fine residences have been 
added to the beautiful total of lovely homes which 
are here in such numbers, and a general spirit of 
progressiveness has followed the public improve- 
ments. Baton Rouge has splendid shipping facil- 
ities and excellent modes of communication with 
the fertile sections which surround it. In addition 
to the Mississippi River, it has the main line of 
the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad, giving 
through northern and southern connections; the 
Texas & Pacific, which enters Port Allen, across 
the river, with ferryboat connection from the north 
and south, and also a new line built to New Roads, 
in Panute Coupee Parish. There is now hieing 
surveyed a branch of the Yazoo & Mississippi Val- 
ley Railroad tO' Hammond, to connect with the Illi- 
nois Central. This will add to its through facilities, 
besides giving Baton Rouge better communication 



with the fertile hill lands which lie east of the city^ 

The correspondent of the Times-Democrat of 
New Orleans has recently visited the city, and the 
following from his interesting letter fittingly fills 
out the description of Baton Rouge: 

"Baton Rouge, like all other cities, is on the out- 
look for factories. Let a man with money and 
influence come to Baton Rouge, and say that he is- 
there for the purpose of organizing a stock com- 
pany for the erection of some factoiw which will 
give daily employment to several hundred people,, 
and see how quickly the energetic citizens will 
assist him in the establishment of such an enter- 
prise. 

"'We are in for anything which will build up 
our city,' said a prominent citizen to the Times- 
Democrat correspondent. 'The very things essen- 
tial to the growth of any place are factories, and we 
propose to g-et our share of these, as we offer advan- 
tages scarcely to be found at any other point.' 

"The banking institutions of Baton Rouge show 
for themselves v.-hat prosperity and success they 
have achieved. 

"The forty-fourth quarterly report of the Bank- 
of Baton Rouge shows resources of $950,637.73,- 
the liabilities including a surplus fund of $125,000,- 
and undivided profits of $28,197.59. 

"The First National Bank shows resources of" 
$528,880.60, the liabilities including surplus fund 
of $50,000 and undivided profits of $10,749.94. 

"The deposits are: Bank of Baton Rouge, $748,- 
096.14; First National, $338,234.02. 

"PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 

"The sum of $10,000 is appropriated yearly by 
the state for the maintenance of the Louisiana 
institution for the education of the blind. This- 
institution is neither a hospital nor an asylum for 
those who are stricken blind. The aim is to give a 
practical education to the young blind residing in 
the state, and the teachings embrace all the 
branches of a first-class high school education. 

"The buildings of this institution are imposing- 
structures, cjuaint in architectural design, and sur- 



Past— Present— Prospective 



5B0 





A NEW AND BEAUTIFUL HOME OF BATON ROUGE 



FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BATON ROUGE 




AT BATON ROUGE 




A NOTED SOUTHERN HOME, BATON ROUGE, LA. 




BANK OF BATON ROUGE. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



541 




NEW HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 












> 



LAYING THE NEW SEWER SYSTEM OF BATON ROUGE. 




1 Boulevard 

2 Boulevard 

3 View of city, looking north from State House. 



4 Mississippi River and southern portion of city, looking south 

5 National Avenue, looking east 

6 Levee Camp, near Baton Rouge 



BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA. 




1 New City Hall 

2 Government Post Office Building 

3 Institute for Deaf and Dumb 

4 Steamer at landing with levee outfit 



5 Institute for Blind 

6 Glimpse La Fayette Street 

7 Parish Court Building 



8 Capitol Building 

9 Episcopal Church 

10 Governor's home 



BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA 



544 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



rounded with an inviting lawn and park of oak 
trees, which forms a most picturesque view, and 
makes the home of the deaf and dumb an abidino- 
place where one would want to live forever and 
enjoy the beauty and solitude of their surroundings. 
The present superintendent, Dr. John Jastremski, 
took charge in ISO-i, and has since that date suc- 
ceeded in building up an institution which is a 
credit to the state. The pupils are given a regular 
course in studies, similar to a high school training, 
and are also taught different branches of industry in 
the workshop, which fits them for usefulness in life, 
and perfects them in a trade which they can use 
to advantage when they are thrown on their own 
resources. 

"LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY 

"There is no more attractive spot in the South 
than the beautiful grounds of this great state col- 
lege. The flowers, the giant oaks, and the quaint 
old buildings, with here and there a more modern 
structure, form an ideal setting for the handsome 
cadets who gather in groups about the buildings. 

"The grounds lie between the northern limits of 
the city and the fine artificial lake that was formed 
some years ago by damming Bayou Grassie. They 
have a frontage of nearly half a mile on the bluff 
overlooking the Mississippi River, and extend back 
more than a mile. The front is occupied by the 
university proper, and the back by one of the three 
experiment stations of the university, the other 
two being located at Audubon Park, in New Or- 
leans, and at Calhoun, in Ouachita Parish. 

"The buildings and grounds were formerly used 
by the United States as a barracks, but were eiven 
to Louisiana in 1886 for the use of the State Uni- 
versity. Around this old militaiw post cluster his- 
toric associations and traditions of greatest interest. 
Occupied in succession by French, English, Span- 
ish and American garrisons, it has been at some 
time the temporary home of many a man who has 
become distinguished in the military history of the 
United States. What more fitting location could 
be found for a great military school? What boy 
would not be inspired to noble endeavors in tlie 
presence of such memories? 

"The Louisiana State University had its origin 
in certain grants of land made by the United States 
government 'for the use of a seminaiy of learning.' 
It was first established near Alexandria, in Rapides 



Parish, under the name of Louisiana State Sem- 
inary of Learning and Military Academy, and was 
opened on Jan. 2. 1S60, with Colonel (afterwards 
General) W. T. Sherman as superintendent. In 
October, 1869, its buildings were destroyed by fire, 
and the institution was removed to Baton Rouge. 
"The Agricultural and Mechanical Colleo-e 
which was founded on, land grants of the United 
States government made for that purpose, was 
temporarily located in New Orleans in 1874, and 
was combined with the State University in 1877. 

"No more important work can be done for the 
state than that which the Louisiana State Univer- 
sity is now so successfully accomplishing. With 
tuition free and with living expenses reduced to 
the minimum, it strives to bring higher education 
within the reach of every desening young man. 

"The object of the institution is to devote special 
attention to the sciences relating to agriculture and 
the mechanic arts, and at the same time to give to its 
students opportunities for broad and liberal literary 
and general scientific education. It offers eight 
regular courses of study — the agricultural, mechan-. 
ical, civil engineering, sugar engineering, general 
science, Latin, science and literary, besides special 
and post-graduate courses. The course in sugar 
engineering covers five years, the other courses 
four years. 

"The course in agriculture, for which the experi- 
ment stations, gardens and well-equipped laborato- 
ries give exceptional facilities, is designed to meet 
the educational needs of the farmer in this pro- 
gressive and competitive age. 

"The sugar planter is not only an agriculturist, 
but a manufacturer, and, to train experts in this 
important industry, courses of instruction are nec- 
essary that few colleges can offer. Located in our 
own sugar belt, with trained experts in its scientific 
chairs, workshops and sugar experiment station, the 
university has superior facilities for a thorough the- 
oretical and practical instruction in everything per- 
taining to the cultivation and manufacture of 
sugar. The student of the sugar course spends the 
grinding seasons of the junior years in practical 
work at the Audubon Park sugar experiment sta- 
tion, under the immediate direction of Dr. William 
C. Stubbs, who is acknowledged to be the highest 
authority in the United States on the cultivation 
and manufacture of sugar. This course is attract- 
ing students from distant states and from foreign 



Past— Present— Prospective 



545 









THOMAS D. BOYD 
President Louisiana State University 



WILLIAM GARIG 
President Executive Board, Louisiana State University 





WILLIAM C.STUBBS 
Director oF Evperimental Station, Louisiana State University 



ROBERTA. HART 
Mayor of Baton Rouge 



546 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




president's residence, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. 




MISSISSIPPI RIVER FROM CADET BARRACKS, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



547 




CADET BARRACKS, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. 




THE "COLONY," LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE 



548 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 




ARTILLERY DRILL— LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. 




BASEBALL FIELD— LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



549 




DEPARTMENTS OF AGRICULTURE AND CHEMISTRY, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA 




BARNS, EXPERIMENT STATION, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA 



550 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




A CORNER OF THE LIBRARY, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE 




CLASS ROOM OF AGRICULTURE, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE 



Past— Present— Prospective 



551 



countries, and most inviting and lucrative fields of 
employment are opening to its graduates. Experts 
in the various branches of the sugar industry are 
in great demand. One of the young graduates of 
the university has recently accepted a position in 
Hawaii, at a salary of $6,000 a year. 

"The courses in mechanical and civil engineering 
not only give thorough training in the higher 
mathematics, but fit the student to fill the positions 
that are rapidly opening to capable surveyors and 
engineers. The graduates in civil engineering find 
ready employment on our railroads and levees, or 
in our state and United States engineer offices. 
The course in mechanical engineering has been 
only recently made a separate course. 

"The commercial course, established last year, 
aims to meet the increasing demand in the com- 
mercial world for young business men of broad, 
liberal culture. Thorough instruction in the Span- 
ish language is .i prominent feature of this course. 

"In the general science course the student con- 
centrates his attention upon some one science or 
group of sciences. iMost of the students in this 
course specialize in chemistry, for which the State 
University offers facilities and advantages unsur- 
passed, if equaled, in the South. 

"The other courses aim at g-eneral, rather than 
special, culture. In them the student combines 
science with linguistic training; or. while not neg- 
lecting the broader divisions of science, becomes 
familiar with the masterpiece of literai-y art, an- 
cient and modern, and is thus trained in the appre- 
ciation of literary culture. 

"The discipline of the university is military, and 
is designed to develop^ obedience, promptness, neat- 
ness, order and true manliness of character. 

"The attendance, especially in the higher classes, 
is larger than ever before. There are now 350 stu- 



dents present, and the number will run over 400 
before the close of the session. 

"The General Assembly at its last session was 
unusually liberal in its appropriations to the uni- 
versity, and in consequence many improvements 
are being made. Before the beginning of the next 
session a large three-story brick building will be 
completed and will contain a mess hall for 500 
cadets and dormitories for 150. 

"The Louisiana State Universit}-, like many 
other Southern colleges, has suffered from lack of 
means, but the indications are that its growth will 
soon cease to be retarded by this cause. Not only 
is the state fully alive to its needs, but private indi- 
viduals are coming to its assistance. The most 
memorable event of the last year was the generous 
gift of an assembly hall by Mr. Wm. Garig of Baton 
Rouge, and the alumni of the university, under the 
leadership of their able and indefatigable president, 
Mr. Lewis S. Graham of New Orleans, will soon 
add a handsome alumni memorial hall to the build- 
ings on the campus. 

"The people of Louisiana have just cause to feel 
proud of their State University and to give it their 
hearty support. Since its foundation it has had 
within its walls hundreds of men who have achieved 
success or risen tO' eminence in private or public 
life. It may point with pride to a glorious past, but 
it may also look with hope and confidence to a far 
more glorious future. 

"It will reach the close of the old century with 
the prestige of forty years of usefulness and of suc- 
cess commensurate with its means and its oppor- 
tunities. It will enter upon the work of the new 
centui'y with a strong faculty of able and devoted 
instructors, with a growing corps of enthusiastic 
students, representing the highest type of young 
American manhood, and with increasing financial 
support from public and private sources." 




BATON ROUGE SUGAR REFINERY 



552 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. 



SUGAR CANE 

Was first introduced into Louisiana by the J esuit 
Fathers in 1751. But it was not until 1794 or 1795 
that Etienne de Bore made the first commercial 
crop of sugar therefrom. A large number of plant- 
ers soon followed Mr. Bore's example, and began 
the erection of sugar houses all over the southern 
part of the state. With each succeeding year names 
Avere added to the list of sugar planters, and all of 
them rapidly accumulated wealth. An additional 
impulse was given the industry in 1820 by the in- 
troduction of our present variety of cane by Mr. 
John J. Coiron. Previous to this time the Creole 
and the Tehili were the varieties used. The striped 
and purple varieties introduced by Mr. Coiron, 
now, with few exceptions, occupy the plantations 
of this state, and will doubtless remain, unless sup- 
planted by some of the promising seedlings now 
annually propagated on the sugar experimental 
station. 

Sugar cane is a gigantic grass, often reaching ten 
to fifteen feet in heig-ht, straight during grovvfth, 
but is bent or reclined often by its own weight, or 
by the winds at maturity. Its roots are fibrous and 
lateral, stretching in all directions, and usually not 
penetrating the soil to any depth. The cyhndrical 
stalk is composed of nodes and internodes (points), 
with alternate leaves, clasping during growth, re- 
ceding and falling oft' at maturity. Under the base 
of each leaf in the node is a bud or eye which con- 
tains the germ of the future cane. Until recently 
these buds were regarded as the true seed of the 
cane, but experiments first made by Nupes, Ham- 
son & Bovell, of Bachadoes, and since successfully 
repeated by many experimenters in tropical coun- 
tries, have shown that the panicle of flowers pro- 
duced in tropical countries, when the cane arrows, 
contained a few really fertile seeds. By planting the 
latter a large number of "seedlings" have been pro- 
duced, and by selection several of these are now 
coming forward with prominent qualities to dis- 
place the varieties heretofore used. The seed of 
cane are so small, and so many of them infutile, that 
they are useful only for augmenting new varieties. 
The cane crop of the world is therefore still pro- 
duced in the usual way, by planting the entire or 
portions of the stalk, and raising young plants from 
the eyes or the buds at each joint. 

The following is the method pursued in Louisi- 
ana: The ground is thoroughly prepared by deep 



breaking, followed by pulverization. Rows from 
five to seven feet wide are laid ofif and thrown with 
high ridges. The crest of these ridges is opened 
with a double mound board plow, and into this 
opened furrow stalks of cane (one tO' three) are 
placed in continuous lines, and carefully covered 
with plows or hoes. The drainage is established 
by quarter drains, ditches and canals. From each 
bud on the cane deposited comes a young shoot of 
cane, which litters rapidly, giving, later, a continu- 
ous stand of crowded cane of nearly double this 
quantity. Some of the present houses must soon 
succumb, and, with the enlargement of the capacity 
of the rest, a still greater output will be realized. 
The fields have undergone similar changes. With 
improved implements, the use of fertilizers and more 
careful cultivation, the acre yields have already 
been doubled. The spirit of progress is in the air, 
and larger results may be annually expected from 
both field and factory. 

area in cultivation 

The following parishes grow sugar wholly or in 
jjart, and the yields, taken from Bouchereau's re- 
port for 1896 and 1897, is given with each: 

Pounds. 

Ascension 46,677,172 

Assumption 64,770,328 

Avoyelles 2,228,500 

E. Baton Rouge 7,087,450 

Iberia 32,515,057 

Ibei-ville 47,664,150 

Jefferson 8,642,104 

La Fayette 3,098,900 

Lafourche 66,954,228 

Orieans 2,779,272 

Plaquemines . . . 17,773,433 

Pointe Coupee 9,088,800 

Rapides 7,272,750 

St. Bernard 3,231,850 

St. Charies 18,957.145 

St. James 57,899,613 

St. John 26,274,276 

St. Landry 962,090 

St. Martin 7,970,062 

St. Mary 120,871,420 

Terrebonne 59,205,770 

Vermillion 1,986,050 

W. Baton Rouge 24,850,876 

Other Parishes 5,938,261 




KENILWORTH SUGAR REFINERY, PLAQUEMINE PARISH. 




MACHINERY ROOM. 




CRYSTALIZER3 




BOILER ROOM 




DRYERS 




VACUUM PANS 



556 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 




FILTER PRESSES. 




THE MYRTLE GROVE REFINERY OF THEO. S. WILKINSON. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



00/ 



The above gives a total crop of 631,699.561 
pounds of sugar, and was accompanied by a crop of 
molasses of 20,820.130 gallons. There were in 
operation in 1896 and 1897, 230 sugar houses, us- 
ing vacuum pans, which gave an output of 568,- 
778,470 pounds of sugar, with an average of 161 
pounds of sugar per ton of cane ground, and 3,220 
pounds of sugar per acre. The crop now being 
gathered is the largest in the histoiy of postbellum 
sugar raising and will probably exceed 700,000,000 
pounds. There were 165 small open kettle sugar 
houses, which turned out 62,921.091 pounds of 
sugar, equal to ISO pounds per ton of cane ground, 
and 2,360 pounds of sugar per acre. The land de- 
voted to sugar cane in Louisiana is about 300,000 
acres. This can be almost indefinitely increased. 
Even in those parishes where sugar cane growing 
is the chief industiy, there are still large areas which 
may be profitably devoted to the culture of this 
plant, and will be in the very near future, when the 
central factories become more numerous, or those 
already erected shall increase their capacities. Sev- 
eral of the parishes given above are now growing 
cane only in very limited areas, while nearly every 
acre on them can be profitably used in the cane 
culture. 

In the parishes given above there are over 15,000 
square miles, or about 10,000,000 acres. There are 
in cultivation at the present time about 1.000,000 
of acres, or one-tenth of the area, of which only 
about 300,000 are in cane, producing about 300,000 
tons of sugar annually, or about one-seventh of the 
total amount consumed in the United States. If 
the entire ai'ea now in cultivation in these parishes 
could be devoted exclusively to cane, this section 
would produce one-half of the sugar consumed by 
our entire countr}-'. But there are. beside, vast areas 
in these parishes susceptible, with but little expense 
of being brought under cultivation, and should this 
be done, the total area available for sugar culture 
in these parishes would be amply sufficient to grow 
all the sugar demanrled by the people of this entire 
country. 

CENTRAL FACTORIES 

The cost of a central factory capable of working 

daily from 300 to 1,500 tons of cane per day, A\ith 

all modern machinery suitable for the manufacture 

of the best sugars, will be from $75,000 to $300,000. 

The profits from such factories, if well located, will 

be sufficiently large to justify capitalists in erecting 

them. At the same time thousands of small farmers 

Note — On pages preceding are given engraving itterior views of 
It is merely a type of those cent al factories all over the 
pages views of many of these factories are shown — Ed. 



and planters stand read)- to grow the cane when- 
ever the factories are assured. 

Formerly every cane culturist was also a nianu- 
facturer. and upon every plantation of sugar cane 
was to be found a sugar house of sufficient capacity 
to work up the crop grown. To-day the scene is 
changing, changing rapidly. Central factories exist 
— some that do not cultivate cane at all, but pur- 
chase every stalk crushed; others that grow onlv a 
part, large or small, of the large amount consumed. 
The presence of central factories presupposes the 
existence of cane farmers in close proximity. Many 
central factories already exist, and others will soon 
be built. The fierce conflict between low prices and 
profitable returns has forced out of existence many 
a small and incomplete sugar house, and will ulti- 
mately drive out the remaining ones. Ponderous 
machines, with extensive capacities, must hereafter 
manufacture the crystalline product of sugar cane. 
It requires a large amount of cane to supply the 
daily demands of a large central factory; 1,000 to 
1.500 tons per day is now a moderate allowance for 
the largest. Under these new conditions, the 
growing of sugar cane for sale to these factories is 
quite extensively practiced. Small farmers, with 
ten acres of sugar cane, can find a ready market for 
it. just as readily as the large planter, with one 
hundred times this crop. The crops of both are in 
demand. Growing cane bv the ton for sale to cen- 
tral factories is quite a profitable business, and 
many have embarked therein. 

Sugar cane is bought upon a basis of values for a 
certain grade of sugar, and hence, when the latter 
is riding high, the former conforms to it in price. 
No enterprise is more inviting than that of raising 
sugar cane by the ton for the factories. Lands in 
anv quantit\- may be purchased or rented well 
adapted lo the growth of cane. The capital re- 
quired will depend largely upon the magnitude of 
the enterprise. One's own labor, if intelligently de- 
cided, will accomplish a great deal towards the cul- 
tivation of twenty to thirty acres of cane. Addi- 
tional help will lie required in planting and harvest- 
ing the crop. Good land will make from twenty to 
forty tons of cane per acre, and at present the fac- 
tories are paying eighty-five cents to one dollar per 
ton for each cent per pound that prime yellow 
sugar brings in the market of New Orleans. There 
is a large field in Louisiana for the investment of 
cajiital in central factories and for intelligent labor 
to grow the cane. 

a representative Sugar Factory — the Kenilworth, lately built — 
State which are mentioned on the above page. In subsequent 




1, 2, 3, 4 Cypress Cutting Scenes of the Lutcher & Moore Lumber Mills, Lutcher, La. 
5 Convent Sacred Heart, St. James' Parish, Convent, La. 6 Headquarters Ponchartrain Levee Board, Convent, La. 

7 Jefferson College, Jesuit Fathers, St. James' Parish 

VIEWS ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SOUTH OF BATON ROUGE 



Past— Present— Prospective 



559 



^ BouQe 




For population, see page 352 ; other 
statistics, page 518. 



560 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 



TRAIN 




For population, see page 352 ; other 
statistics, page 518. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



561 




1 Elm Hall Refinery, Napoleonville, La. 

2 Raceland Refinery, Raceland, La. 

3 Reserve Refinery 



4 Godchaux Building, New Orleans, La. 

5 Residence of the Late Leon Godchaux, New Orleans 

6 Residence of Walter Godchaux, Napoleonville 




GRAMARCY SUGAR CO., GRAMARCY, LA. 





l*^^.:"* ■ig4 m iJHf'-t-Hil 


iUiiW^Wji^^ I ■::m^^L:"^^..-;::: 





HOME OF LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR ALBERT ESTOPINAL, ST. BERNARD PARISH 




THE BELAIR SUGAR REFINERY OF JOHN DYMOND 



/: 



N, 



\. 



* ' r r » J it ' 





CAFFERY REFINERY, FRANKLIN, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



563 



BAYOU LA FOURCHE. 

One of the best cultivated sections of the State of 
Louisiana Hes on the two sides of this bayou, which 
debouches from the Mississippi River at Donald- 
sonville and empties finally into the Gulf of Mexico. 
From DonaldsonviUe to as far south as below Lock- 
port there are continuous sugar plantations — some 
of the largest and finest in the state. The tendency 
of all offshoots from the parent river is to close 
themselves. This tendency first shows itself nearest 
the point at which they enter the Gulf, and lower 
Bayou La Fourche has filled and shoaled to such 
an extent that it makes the problem of levees to 
hold the waters from sweeping over these magnifi- 
cent plantations, quite a serious one. These levees 
have, perforce, been raised almost yearly to meet 
these changing conditions at the mouth, and it has 
been almost impossible to prevent crevasses from 
taking place, especially near the lower end of the 
bayou. It is shown by the reports which have been 
made to Congress that a lock at the source of this 
river at DonaldsonviUe would be immeasurably 
cheaper than the present expensive levee system, be- 
sides giving approximately the same facilities of 
navigation. Were there no changing conditions in 
the bayou and had the line of high water remained 
at it was a few years ago, it is probable that the 



unrestrained navigation which has existed would 
have been regarded by the planters and merchants 
as sufficient compensation for the occasional dan- 
gers of crevasses, and the expense of maintaining 
these levees. ' But these conditions have decided 
them overwhelmingly in favor of a lock, and a 
strong movement, as above mentioned, is being 
made to secure prompt action from Congress in 
this direction. 

On accompanying pages are shown some engrav- 
ings of general scenes and fertile plantations along 
this bayou. By the very nature of things it was 
impossible to secure photographs of all the beauti- 
ful residences and fine sugar houses which exist so 
numerously. Indeed, some of the most attractive 
must remain unpictured by reason of lack of these 
from which to make engravings. 

Along- the banks of the La Fourche, besides 
DonaldsonviUe, which lies at its point of departure 
from the river, are Paincourtville, Plattenville, La- 
biedaville, Napoleonville, the parish seat of As- 
sumption parish, Thibodaux, the parish seat of La 
Fourche parish and one of the most prosperous as 
well as one of the largest of the south Louisiana 
towns, and Lockport, and several other smaller 
places. 




M'CALI,'S EVAN HALL REFINERY — ASCENSION PARISH 




1 Robert Nicholson, East Carroll 8 

2 Phillip McGuire, East Carroll 9 

3 A. B. Armstrong, Madison 10 

4 P. L. Lorio, Iberville 1 1 

5 E. W. Pike, Assumption 12 

6 J. Rumsey Duke. Ascension 13 

7 Albert S. Coltharp, Madison 14 



Jules B. Savoie, Plaquemine 15 

Henry L. Weil, Ascension 16 

John S. Bargas, Iberville 17 

Martin Glynn, Point Coupee 18 

A. E. Bass, Tensas 19 

Henry C. Braud, Ascension 20 
J. F. Lassus, St. Mary 



L. V. Landry, Iberville 

Amedie Frederick, Ascension 

H. M. Floyd, Madison 

R. Prosper Landry, Ascension 

H. S. Nichols, Tensas 

H. T. Brown, Ascension 



:i^^i;L:£;i:?g^-vsr. 



21 J. B. Erwin, Madison 

22 John Wilberts, Iberville 

23 Wm. B. Bowers, Madison 

24 P. D. Quays, East Carroll 

25 John I. Brown, Iberville 

26 Jules A. Ayraud, Ascension 



SOME MEN WHO HAVE BEEN ACTIVELY 




1 Dudley Avery, Iberia 9 

2 H. Romero, Iberia 10 

3 Albert Landry, Iberia 1 1 
6 John D. Broussard, Iberia 12 
8 A. Decuir, Iberia 13 



G. W.Bolton, Rapides 14 

L. B. Claiborne, Pointe Coupee 15 

John Ehret. Jefferson 16 

Henry Hart, Jefferson 17 

J. Spies, Jefferson 18 



F. L. St. Martin, Jefferson 
Edwin P. Brady, Jefferson 
L. H. Marrero, Jefferson 
John R. Langridge, Jefferson 
Valentine Betz, Jefferson 



1 9 Henry Gardey, Jefferson 

20 Representative Wilbert, Iber- 

ville 
2 1 Jules Godchaux, Lafourche 

22 W. C. Carruth, Point Coupee 

23 Wm. Rebentisch, Jefferson 



IDENTIFIED WITH LEVEE MATTERS IN LOUISIANA 



566 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




BAYOU I,A FOURCHE — A PART OF THE GREAT SUGAR DISTRICT OF I,OUISIANA 



LA N O R ~Y 




R 1 

For population, see page 352; other statistics, page 51S 

lASCENSION 




For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, p- ge 51S 



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1 Sugar Factory on Belle Alliance Plantation, Mr. 5 Sugar Factory on Greenwood Plantation, Thibod- 8 Residence of E. P. Munson, Napoleonville, La 

Koch, Prop. ayx La 

2 Residence of E. J. Koch, Belle Alliance, La. . o ■. ' m . ■„ , ^ ^^ Fourche Refinery, Thibodaux, La. 

T c u rw 1^ -11 I ^ Bridge at Napoleonville, La. 

3 entrance to Bayou La rourche, Donaldsonville, La. 

4 Sugar Factory on Palo Alto Plantation, Donaldson- 7 Sugar Factory, Westfield Plantation, Paincourt- 

ville, La. ville. La. 1 1 Sugar Factory, Abbey Place Plantaiion 



10 Sugar Mill on E. D. White Plantation 



SCENES ALONG THE LA FOURCHE 



570 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




1 Locks at Plaquemine 3 Wilberts & Bros'. Sawmili, Plaquemine 

2 Residence of James A. Ware 4 VC. P. Miles' Residence, Burnside 

9 Residence of VC. J. Behan 



5 Houmas Sugar Refinery, Burnside 7 Court House, Donaldsonville 

6 Bird's-Eye View of Houmas Plantation 8 Vega Building, Donaldsonville 

1 Plant of the Donaldsonville Ice Co. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



571 




1 Acadia Sugar Factory 3 Bank of La Fourche, Thibodaux 5 Residence of John T. Moore, Shriever 7 Waubon Refinery 

2 Court House and Water Works, Thibodaux 4 Mt. Carmel Convent, ThiboJaux- 6 Bank of Thibodaux 8 Sugar Factory, Laurel Grove Plantation 

VIEWS IN AND AROUND THIBODAUX AND SHRIEVER 




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Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




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Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




1,2, 3, 4, Exterior and Interior Views of a 

Sugar Planter's Home— J. M. McBride 
5. Southdown Sugar Refinery 



6. Sugar Refinery, Ardoyne Plantation 

7. Argyle Sugar Refinery 

8. Residence of Charles McGinnis 



9. Crescent Farm Sugar Refinery 

10. Hauling Cane 

1 1. Ashland Sugar Refinery 



SCENES IN TERRE BONNE PARISH 



Past— Present— Prospective 



579 





THE LATE WALTER C. FLOWER 

- Ifoo 



PAUL CAPDEVILLE 
Mayor of New Orleans 



580 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 



NEW ORLEANS 



By the Late WALTER C. FLOWER 



From the earliest period of discovery and ex- 
ploration in Louisiana until the present da)', the 
region in which the city of New Orleans is situated 
has felt at once the benefit of great natural advan- 
tages and the hampering influences of great natural 
drawbacks. 

The site of the city, near the mouth of the great- 
est of our alluvial streams, and commanding the 
most direct approach to the commerce of Latin- 
America, is so low and level as to be ill adapted to 
natural drainage; and it required the exercise of 
engineering skill of a high order, and the expendi- 
ture of vast sums of money, to devise a system by 
which the heav)- rainfalls common to this locality 
could be speedily carried off. 

For the same reason, the city itself and the coun- 
try tributary to it, have felt the constant need of 
artificial protection against the floods of the Mis- 
sissippi River. 

During the period of the early vicissitudes of 
colonial Louisiana, the minds of men were too 
distracted by other considerations to formulate and 
carry out practical schemes which would lead to 
a solution of the pressing problems confronting 
them. Lrdeed, there is reason to believe that at 
this time there was a failure to appreciate the splen- 
did future that lay before the city. 

There is now (when the wealth and prosperity of 
the city are based on the opportunity of connecting 
the domestic products and manufactures of half the 
continent with half of the outside world by our 
magnificent river, navigated by the largest ocean 
carriers, and by a splendid system of converging- 
railroads) a curious interest in recalling the quaint 
statement of Bienville's engineer, when founding 
the city in 171S, that the controlling motive in 
the location was the opportunity of a large and 
profitable trade with the savages in the back coun- 
try, by way of Lake Pontchartrain and the Bayou 
St. John, with a four-foot bar at its mouth. It did 
not occur to him that he was seated in the door- 
way of a continent, nor could he foresee the net- 



work of iron roads, traversing the country in every 
direction, and competing, as freight carriers, with 
the greatest rivers. 

The opening decade of the present century wit- 
nessed two achievements, one of American states- 
manship, the other of American inventive genius, 
both destined to have far-reaching eilects upon the 
fortunes of the infant city. In 1803, the envoys of 
Thomas Jefferson consummated the purchase of 
Louisiana from Napoleon. In 1807, the "Cler- 
mont" of Robert Fulton, made its trial trip on the 
Hudson, the first steamboat on American waters. 

A few years before, Eli Whitney had given to 
the world the invention of the cotton gin, and 
Etienne de Bore had solved the problem of the 
successful manufacture of sug-ar from cane juice. 

Thus the new territory entered the family of 
American commonwealths under bright auspices, 
and its early progress justified the hopes of the fu- 
ture greatness of New Orleans, which, according to 
one of her historians, was at this period not only ap- 
preciated, but exaggerated, by even the most saga- 
cious minds. 

In 1840, only New York, Philadelphia and Balti- 
more surpassed us in population. With the rapid 
development of ocean steam navigation, a new im- 
pulse was given to the commercial energies of our 
people, but here we felt nature's handicap. The 
character of our great alluvial stream is such that 
with the increased draft required by the largest 
steam vessels, a proper depth can be maintained at 
the mouth of the Mississippi only by artificial 
means. 

In 1S52, a board of officers appointed by the 
AVar Department recommended as means of secur- 
ing deep water (1) stirring up the bottom by suita- 
ble machinery, (2) dredging by buckets, (3) jetties 
in Southwest Pass, (4) closing lateral outlets, and 
(5) constructing a ship canal. A depth of 18 feet 
was secured by the first plan and maintained until 
the funds were exhausted. 

Under the next appropriation (1856) an abortive 





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582 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River. 



attempt was made to appl);- the plan of jetties to 
Southwest Pass; but a depth of IS feet was secured, 
by dredging and scraping. 

The greatest depth attained before the comple- 
tion of the Eads jetties in 1879 was 20 feet. The 
least depth since their completion has been 25 feet. 
The recent phases of the vital problem of deep 
water for our great ocean carriers are familiar to 
the public. 

The guaranty of a sufficient depth at the mouth 
of the Mississippi removes one great menace to 
the city's prosperity. 

With the almost insurmotmtable obstacles to 
natural drainage already mentioned, and with 
nearly two centuries' persistent violation of the 
elementary laws of sanitation, New Orleans has 
borne the inevitable penalty of wasting epidemics 
which have checked her progress and neutralized 
the many natural advantages which she enjoys. 
A year after the partial success of the crude effort 
toward deep-water navigation already referred to, 
occurred the great epidemic of 1853. A year be- 
fore the completion of the Eads jetties, came the 
epidemic of 1818. Then, for nearly twenty years 
we were lulled into security by continued immunity 
from the disease, until in 189Y and 1898 the mild 
visitations of those years stirred to frenzy the 
people of the surrounding country, tributary to the 
city's trade and commerce ; and partly through gen- 
uine fear, partly through adroit use of our extrem- 
ity as their opportunity, enabled some of our am- 
bitious neighbors to divert a substantial part of 
the traffic which was rightfully ours. 

Then our people were brought face to face with 
the necessity for prompt and vigorous action for 
the removal of the stigma which had so long rested 
upon the city. During the closing months of the 
year 1898, the movement for sewerage, drainage, 
and the purchase and extension of the existing 
waterworks plant, took definite form. At a spe- 
cial meeting between members of the council and 
other officials of the city government, the scheme 
of a special tax levy for those purposes' was 
broached. It was approved at this preliminary 
meeting, and laid before the public. Such ob- 
stacles as are incidental to great enterprises of its 
kind were gradually overcome; the legal and con- 
stitutional problems presented were solved, and 
the ordinance of the City Council designed to carry 
out the project was submitted for ratification to the 
Legislature of Louisiana at an extra session held 



on August 8, 1899. At that session the Legisla- 
ture ratified the ordinance passed by the municipal 
council and provided for the organization of a 
sewerage and Wfiter board so constituted as to be 
beyond the reach of political influence and control. 
The General Assembly also reported a consti- 
tutional amendment to be submitted to the people 
at the general State election to be held in April 
next, confirming the municipal and legislative ac- 
tion, and giving constitutional sanction to the pub- 
lic improvement bonds to be issued for the execu- 
tion of the proposed work. All preliminaries for 
the bond issue, and general organization of the 
Board are now being made, and after the election in 
April the work will be pushed vigorously. Our 
design is to complete the whole drainage, sewerage 
and new filter water plant in five years. These 
great works accomplished, we believe that yellow 
fever and other epidemic diseases will be forever . 
banished from New Orleans. 

With the city thoroughly sewered and drained, 
and provided with an adequate water system un- 
der municipal control and under the management 
of a non-partisan, non-political Board, as contem- 
plated in the legislative act; with the Mississippi 
River and her levees under the control of the na- 
tional government, and deep water at the river's 
mouth assured, a future opens up for New Orleans 
almost undreamed of to-day. 

Situated at the gateway of a continent, at the 
mouth of the largest river in the world, affording 
a natural highway to the sea for the varied prod- 
ucts of the fertile vallej^s drained by the Mississippi 
River and its tributaries, New Orleans is destined 
to be the greatest exporting port of the country. 
Already her exports of grain have quadrupled in 
the past two years, with promise of continued in- 
crease. 

Her exports of cotton, rice, sugar and grain 
make her to-day the second export cit)^ of the 
United States. The increasing business with the 
vast territory to the southwest, with the growing 
South American republics and with Mexico, give 
promise of vast accessions to her commerce within 
the next few years. The completion of the Nica- 
ragua canal is but a question of time. With a fu- 
ture so full of promise. New Orleans presents to 
the capitalist, the manufacturer, the man of busi- 
ness and enterprise, a field for investment and 
operation unsurpassed by any city on the Amer- 
ican continent. W. C. FLOWER, 
Nov. 1, 1899. Mayor. 




S. p. WALMSLEY, 
President Cotton Exchange 



F. W. YOUNG 
President Manufacturers' Association 





LOUIS PFISTER 
President Wholesale Grocers' Association 







UDOLPHO WOLFE 
President Board of Trade 




D. M. KILPATRICK 

President Chamber of Commerce 





ISIDOR NEWMAN 
President Stock Exchange 



C. S. FOSTER 

President Credit Men's Association 



,-^fc. 




HENRY G. HESTER 
Secretary Cotton Exchange 





WILLIAM ADLER 



J. C. MURPHY 
President Sugar Exchange 




HENRY H. SMITH 
Secretary Board of Trade 





ROBERT M.WALMSLEY 
President Drainage Commission 




A. R. BLAKELY 
President Progressive Union 



BERNARD McCLOSKEY 
Attorney Orleans Levee Board 




JAMES MC EACKEN 



THE I.ATE LEON GODCHAUX 



CAPT. J. W. CARLTON 





CAPT. P. A. CHARI.ET 



LOXJIS GRUNEWALD 



586 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - 




1 Richard Milliken Memorial 2, 3 Charity Hospital 

4 Fisk Free Library 5, g Experimental Station 

SOME OF THE PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 



7 Marine Hospital 



Past— Present— Prospective 



587 




1 Old Slave Market 



2 John McDonough Statue 3, 9 New Orleans Cotton Press 

5 A Historic Corner 7 Lee Statue 



4, 6 Bird's-eye Views from Masonic Temple 
8 Tulane University 



NEW ORLEANS VIEWS 



5S8 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 




STREET VIEWS OF THE COMMERCIAL SECTIONS OF NEW ORLEANS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



589 




SOME OF THE BANKING HOUSES OF NEW ORLEANS 



590 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




1 Jackson Brewery 

2 Sugar Refineries 



3 New Orleans Sugar Exchange 

4 A Wholesale Dry Goods Building 



5, 8 Two Fine Retail Business Buildings 

6, 7 Prominent Industrial Plants 



SOME BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL VIEWS 



Past— Present— Prospective 




1 Brooklyn Cooperage 

2 Douglas Branch American Biscuit Co. 

3 Louisiana Distilling Co. 



4 McGinnis Cotton Mills 

5 Cotton Exchange 

6 Whitney Iron Works 



7 Office Building 

8 Socola Rice Mill 

9 Hernsheim Cigar and Tobacco Factory 



PROMINENT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES (WITH NEW ORLEANS COTTON 

EXCHANGE BUILDING IN CENTER) 




Custom House 

City Hall 

Interior View, French Marke; 



4 Soule Commercial and Literary 

Institute 

5 Franklin School 



6 Typical Milk Wagon 

7 Andrew Jackson's Headquarters 

8 Old Absinthe Cafe 



9 Harmony Club 

10 United States Mint 

11 Louisiana Jockey Club 



GENERAL VIEWS, NOTABLE AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



593 




SOME STREET VIEWS, WITH THE FRENCH MARKET IN THE CENTER 



594 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; 




VIEWS IN THE PARKS AND CEMETERIES 



Past— Present— Prospective 



595 




SOME TYPES OF RESIDENCES, NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



596 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




SOME TYPES OF RESIDENCES, NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



597 




INTERIOR VIEW OF THE FISK FREE I,IBRARV 




INTERIOR VIEW OF NEW ORI,EANS BOARD OF TRADE 



698 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River • 








THE FERRY BETWEEN NEW ORLEANS AND ALGIERS 




1 Southern Pacific Transfer Boat 
2 Texas Pacific Transfer Boat 



3 Southern Pacific Coal Elevator 

4 Texas Pacific Warehouse and Elevator 



Past— Present— Prospective 



599 



NEW ORLEANS AS A MANUFACTURING CITY 



By J. A. BLAFFER, Secretary New Orleans Progressive Union 




J. A. BLAFFER 

New Orleans offers many advantages as a manu- 
facturing city not possessed by other cities whicli 
have forged far ahead of her in the manufactming 
hne. The reason for this apparent neglect of oppor- 
tunity is that Newr Orleans is also a com.mcrcial 
city of large importance, and most of the attention 
of her money men has been devoted to commerce. 
Some few have invested capital in manufacturing 
enterprises, and they have found that it yielded 
good returns, and this fact has attracted other capi- 
tal, with the result that the resources of this city in 
that line are gradually being developed. 

The people of this city have begun to realize that 
the future hope of the city lies in making it a city 
of factories, and there has been an agitation along 
that line that promises to bring good fruit in the 
near future. The fact has been brought home to 
the people that they send away thousands of dollars 
for goods which they could just as well manufac- 
ture here, and save not only the profits that accrue 
to the distant manufacturers, but that enormous 
freight charge. 

One of the first requisites of a manufacturing city 
is the nearness to a market and transportation facil- 



ities to reach that market. These requisites New 
Orleans possesses to a considerable degree. Hav- 
ing been very largely a commercial city, her mer- 
chants have made a veiy large part of the southern 
country tributary tO' New Orleans. Texas, Arkan- 
sas, Mississippi, Alabama, and even Florida, are 
regarded as the legitimate trade territory of this 
city, and therefore any article manufactured for 
general consumption in New Orleans would find a 
large field for disposal in these states. But not only 
has she this particular advantage; she has another, 
which is capable of enormous development. New 
Orleans is the neai'est American port of any con- 
secjuence to the new island possessions to the 
south, and has a steadily growing volume of trade 
with the countries of Central and South America. 
Mexico is in direct communication with New Or- 
leans both by rail and by steamship, lines. Vast 
quantities of manufactured articles are brought to 
New Orleans from the north and northwest, and 
shipped from here to these countries. With regu- 
lar steamship lines already established, making reg- 
ular trips, the entente cordiale may be said to have 
already been engendered in a commercial sense,, 
and all that remains is to build the factories hera/ 



and save to the people of New Orleans the enor- 
mous amounts that they pay as tribute to the 
manufacturing centers of the north and east. The 
history of the country for the past thirty years 
shows that it is not the producer who makes the 
money, but the manufacturer, and that fact has 
only just begun to dawn upon the Crescent City. 

Now, the next requisite, we will say, is labor. If 
there is a city in this counti-y which can show a bet- 
ter class of labor than New Orleans, its fame haa"^ 
not yet reached this end of the Mississippi Valle/: 
There are all kinds to be found here, from the most 
skilled artisans to the cheapest kind of day labor. 
As a class, it is intelligent and tractable, and has not 
become imbued with the spirit of socialism which 
has so materially interfered with the efficiency of 
labor in some of the manufacturing centers. A 



% 







1 W. G. Wilmot 

2 S. V. Fornaris 

3 B. F. Eshleman 

4 J. C. Morris 

5 Chas. H. Schenck 



6 Chas. Janvier 

7 A. B. Wheeler 

8 W. R. Irby 

9 The Lale Ediiiiiud Richardson 

10 The Late Margaret Haughery 



11 J. C. Denis 

12 Frank Roder 

13 Sidney H. March 

14 James W. Hearn 

15 Louis Cucnln 



16 John H O'Connor 
i; J. W. Castle 

18 Abraliam Lehman 

19 G. W. Young 

20 Albert Baldwin 



SOME OF THE MOVERS IN THE FIELD C 




1 I. L. Lyons 

2 Frank A. Daniels 

3 A. A. Maginnis 

4 Branch M. Kio^ 



5 J. H. Keller 

6 J. H. Stauffer 

7 Wm, A. Kernaghan 

8 The Late A, H. May 



9 The Late Simon Hernsheim 

10 The Late Charles Chaffe 

11 P. J. Henderson 

12 Sidney Story 



13 Hugh McCtoskey 

["4 Augustus May 

15 R. E. Craig 

16 Bishop Sessums 



:)EAVOR IN NEW ORLEANS, PAST AND PRESENT 




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Past— Present— Prospective 



603 



strike here is extremely rare, and, when it does 
occur, a peaceful and satisfactory solution is soon 
effected. There is an abundance of cheap labor 
here — the negro element. Living among the 
poorer class of the people is very cheap, compared 
to what it is in the cold northern countries. The 
dwellings are not expensive, and there is no need 
for the heavy clothing that is required eight nionths 
in the year in more northern climes. The ther- 
mometer rarely reaches the freezing point, and 
when it does it does not stay there more than a 
few days. There are many children of the poorer 
classes who go barefooted the whole year round. 
Necessities of life are abundant and cheap. Taken 
all together, the lot of the poorer classes is better 
here than elsewhere, and therefore they can afford 
to work for less wages. 

Now, as to the question of water and a fuel sup- 
ply. New Orleans is as well located as any of the big 
manufacturing centers of the north. Lying 011 the 
banks of the Mississippi, with its inexhaustible sup- 
ply of water to be had by simply running a pipe to 
the river, or, when the new water-works system is 
inaugurated under municipal control, at a mini- 
mum cost, that question is easily solved. As to 
fuel, the coal fields of West Virginia are placed 
practically at our doors by that same great river, 
while the developing coal fields of Alabam.a are 
ready to pour in any quantity by rail. If bought 
in large quantities, it can be had at very low rates. 

When you consider the question of the raw prod- 
uct, then you begin to wonder why for all these 
years New Orleans has been paying tribute to dis- 
tant manufacturers, when much of the raw material 
which she bought in manufactured form came 
from this vicinity. 

One of the first instances that attract notice is 
cotton. The fleecy staple is shipped all the way 
to the mills in the eastern states, manufactured 
into cotton goods, and then shipped back here to 
be sold to the producers, who pay sufihcient profit 
to enrich the eastern manufacturers and support 
that entire section. This particular branch of indus- 
try has been exhaustively discussed in this city, 
with the result that several projects for the organ- 
ization of cotton mills here have been set on foot, 
and some of them have been successfuUy launched. 
The southern country has taken up the cry of 
bringing the factories to the cotton fields, and dis- 
patches tell of the organization of cotton mill com- 
panies in several near-by towns. But not only 



should they be built there, but New Orleans 
should resound with the buzz of a million spindles, 
weaving not only the cloth to be worn by our own 
people, but a wealth for those people. In the cot- 
ton spindle there is a world of wealth, as has been 
demonstrated by the eastern spinners. If they can 
make a success of it, so far from the source of sup- 
ply, and under difficulties of climate and labor 
which do not exist here, how much more of a suc- 
cess can we make of it here? That it can be made 
a success, look at the successful mills in Georgia 
and North and South Carolina. There is no need 
to go that far. Look at the t.wo big cotton mills 
right here in the city, which have been so success- 
fully operated, and whose looms are never idle. 

Cotton, however, is not the only raw product 
that ought to be manufactured here in large quan- 
tities. New Orleans ought to be the center of the 
wood-working industries of the country, l^ouis- 
iana's forests teem with pines and oaks and ash, 
and there are millions of acres of cypress swamps. 
These woods are all suitable for manufacture into 
various commercial commodities, and particularly 
furniture. That furniture factories can be success- 
fully run here, there are two examples to point to 
which show what can be done when energy and 
enterprise, backed by a little capital, set to vv'ork 
on the proper line. At one time there were several 
furniture factories started here within a short 
period. Some of them failed, not because of the 
fact that such a business could not prosper here, 
but because they had not sufficient capital, or were 
improperly managed. Box factories have flour- 
ished here to a limited extent. Small wagon and 
buggy factories have been successful, but they 
lacked the capital to expand and grasp a trade that 
was within their reach, but which they saw taken 
away by the big concerns of the north, which have 
made most of their wealth by sending their farm 
wagons and buggies and other vehicles down here 
for sale. Woodenware factories ought to be suc- 
cessful, and one has been started in a neighboring- 
town, which has done fairly well. As for the manu- 
facture of fine furniture from the costlier hard 
woods, there could not be a better site for a fac- 
tory than in New Oideans. These woods come 
from the tropical countries, and our nearness to 
Central America and Mexico ought to make New 
Orleans the ideal place. In fact, thonsands of these 
logs come here and are shipped to the north. 

The New Orleans Picayune, one of the great 



604 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




HOWARD MEMORIAL LIBRARY 







illlf lli:B.Mi|gjitJil«flii 11 11 if Ii|!I!ll!!!!!!f 



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Illllliiiai 

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THE NEW ST. CHARLES HOTEl, 



Past— Present— Prospective 



605 



dailies of this city, has issued a neat pamphlet en- 
titled "Cotton Mills and Manufactories," coiv 
taining a series of very interesting" and highly 
instructive letters, written by their twO' able and 
gifted staff correspondents, Messrs. H. H. Har- 
grove and Will M. Steele. 

These letters have attracted widespread atten- 
tion throughout the northern and southern states 
for the very able presentation of the' movement 
looking for the building of cotton mills and other 
manufactories in New Orleans. Any one interested 
can have a copy mailed to his address by applying 
to the oilices of the Daily Picayune or the New Or- 
leans Progressive Union. 

The nearness of New Orleans to the fast-develop- 
ing" iron region of Alabama ought to result in the 
development of iron and steel industries in this 
city. The great Carnegie plants in and around 
Pittsburg get all their ore from the mines on Lake 
Superior, but they have built a city, or, rather, a 
score of cities, at the confluence of the Allegheny 
and Monongahela Rivers that has more tonnage 
than any city in the countr}'. Even Cincinnati, an 
inland city, far removed from the iron and coal re- 
gions, has a large number of immense manufactur- 
ing concerns which turn out iron and steel 
products. Iri fact, a great deal of the heavy foundry 
work for Louisiana sugar machinei'y is done in that 
city. It could as well and as easily be done right 
here. 

New Orleans presents superior advantag-es as a 
site for a rubber goods factory, owing to the devel- 
opment of the rubber tree plantations in Central 
America. Some rubber is already coming through 
here for shipment to northern concerns. " It could 
as well stop here and be manufactured and then 
sent abroad. 

There is a cork factory in Pittsburg which covers 
acres of ground, which, of course, imports all of 
its raw material from Spain and Portugal. The 
cork forests of Central and South America are 
nearer to New Orleans, and there is no railroad 



freight to pay, and such a concern could as well 
flourish here. Yet the various bottling establish- 
ments here get their corks evidently from one of 
these interior factories. 

Ships coming to this port from India, for cotton 
for Liverpool, bring- over thousands of bales of 
hemp, 'which is shipped to the bagging and twine 
and rope 'factories ol the interior, only to come 
back here in the shape of the marketable article, 
for which we pay. besides the profit to the manu- 
factui-er, the freight to and fro. 

New Orleans has shown that she could manu- 
facture shoes in large cjuantities, and profitable, for 
one concern here has shipped large quantities to the 
Baltic. 

There are dozens of other features which could 
be pointed out, but these are only thrown out as 
sug'gestions. An investigation of any one of them 
will show that these statements are based on fact. 

Another and a very important consideration to 
capital investing in manufacturing enterprises here 
is the encouragement offered by the state. The 
following article for the Constitution of the State 
of Louisiana, recently adopted, shows that exemp- 
tion from taxation is offered for a period of ten 
years, which in itself is no mean inducement: 

"There shall also be exempt from parochial and 
municipal taxation, for a period of ten years, from 
the 1st day of January, 1900, the capital, machinery 
and other property employed in mining operations, 
and in the manufacture of textile fabrics, yarns, 
rope, cordage, leather, shoes, harness, saddlery, 
hats, clothing", flour, machinei-y, articles of tin, cop- 
per and sheet iron, agricultural implements and 
furniture, and other articles of wood, marble or 
stone; soap, stationery, ink and paper, boat build- 
ing and fertilizers and chemicals; provided, that 
not less than five hands are employed in any one 
factory; provided, that nothing herein contained 
shall affect the exemptions declared in this con- 
stitution." 




MARDI GRAS IN NEW ORLBANS 



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VIEWS IN THE PARKS OF NEW ORI^EANS 




NEW ORI,EANS FURNITURE MANUFACTORV 



Past— Present— Prospective 



607 




VIEW OF JACKSON SQUARE AND THE CATHEDRAL 




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DEPOT OF THE Il-LINOIS CENTRAl- AND YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI VALLEY RAILROADS 



608 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River? 







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i^A^ji-i 




GIBSON HALL-MAIN BUILDING, TULANE UNIVERSITY 




LAW DEPARTMENT, TULANE UNIVERSITY 





THE LATE WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON 
First President Tulane University 



DR. EDWIN A. ALDERMAN 
President Tulane University 





CHARLES E. FENNER 
President Board of Administrators Tulane University 



THE LATE DR. T. G. RICHARDSON 



THE TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA 



BOARD OF ADMINISTRATORS 



Charles Erasmus Fenner, President James McConnell, 1st Vice President Robert Miller Walmsley, 2d Vice President 

Edgar Howard Farrar, Benjamin M. Palmer, D. D., LL.D., Walter Robinson Stauffer, Henry Cinder, Joseph C. 
Morris, Ceorge Quintard Whitney, John B. Levert, Ashton Phelps, Charles Janvier, Walker Brainerd Spencer, 
Beverley Warner, D. D., Walter D. Denegre; with the Governor of Louisiana, Mayor of New Orleans, and State 
Superintendent of Public Education, as ex-officio. 



The Tnlane University of Louisiana, located in 
New Orleans, rests upon an endowment by Paul 
Tulane, a retired merchant of New Orleans, who 
spent the last years of his life in Princeton, New 
Jersey. In May, 1882, he signified his intention to 
donate "all the real estate owned and possessed by 



ik 



him in the City of New Orleans, State of Louisiana, 
for the promotion and encouragement of intellec- 
tual, moral and industrial education among the 
white young persons in the City of New Orleans, 
State of Louisiana, and for the advancement of 
learning and letters, the arts and sciences therein." 



610 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



By an Act of the Legislature of 1884, ratified by 
a Constitutional Amendment in 1888, the admin- 
istrators selected by Mr. Tulane to carry out the 
purposes of his donation became the administrators 
in perpetuity of the Tulane University of Louisiana 
and to them was transferred possession -of all the 
rights, powers and privileges, formerly vested in 
the administrators of the University of Louisiana, 
with the buildings and propert}' belonging thereto. 

By subsequent gifts Mr. Tulane increased the 
endowment to over a million dollars. His noble 
example was followed by liberal gifts from Mrs. 
Newcomb and Mrs. Richardson, tO' which addi- 
tional reference is made under the heads of New- 
comb College and Medical Department. On 
"Founders' Day," celebrated with great eclat each 
year, the names of Tulane, Newcomb and Richard- 
son are greeted with reverence and grateful affec- 
tion by the friends of the University. 

In 1894 the Academical Departments were re- 
moved from the old buildings of the University of 
Louisiana to the extensive and admirably adapted 
grounds on St. Charles Avenue opposite Audubon 
Park. About eighteen acres have been set apart 
as a campus and upon this have been erected large 
and handsome buildings, known as Gibson Hall, 
the Physical Laboratory, the Chemical Laboratory, 
Mechanical and Electrical Laboratories, Drawing 
Rooms, Work Shops and Power House. There 
is also' a small working Observatory with two tele- 
scopes and astronomical instruments. These new 
buildings present a handsome architectural appear- 
ance, are commodious and well supplied with the 
appliances of instruction. Few institutions of the 
country are more admirably equipped. 

Gibson Hall, named after Hon. Randall Lee 
Gibson, first president of the Board of Adminis- 
trators, is the largest of these buildings, with a 
frontage of 250 feet. It is built of Bedford stone 
and contains the offices of administration, assembly 
hall, with various class rooms, lecture rooms and 
other facilities for work of faculty and students. A 
large hall and three adjoining rooms are devoted 
to the library, which contains about 25,000 vol- 
umes. 

The museum is located in the third story of Gib- 
son Hall and its valuable collection is being con- 
stantly increased. 

The Linton-Surget hall in the same building 
contains the paintings, statuary, bric-a-brac, and 
about 2,000 volumes of miscellaneous books, do- 



nated by Mme. Surget to the City of New Orleans 
and placed under the custody of Tulane University. 

The University as at present organized com- 
prises the LTniversity Department of Philosophy 
and Science, University Department for Teachers, 
College of Arts and Sciences, College of Technol- 
ogy, Art Department, H. Sophie Newcomb 
Memorial College for Young Women, Department 
of Law and Department of Medicine. 

The faculty consists of seventy-eiglit professors 
and instructors, distributed as follows: University 
Department, 15; College of Arts and Sciences, 17; 
College of Technology, 17; Newcomb College, 23; 
Law Department, 6; Medical Department, 26. 

The attendance of students during the last ses- 
sion was, for all departments, 970, of whom 72 
were in the Law Department, and 388 in the Medi- 
cal Department. From present indications these 
numbers will be largely increased for the session 
of 1899-1900. 

The departments of the college are well supplied 
with the best facilities. In the natural sciences 
laboratory work is required, and there are fuh 
courses of such work in physics, chemistry and 
biology. In these subjects large, special labora- 
tories are provided, which will compare favorably 
with any in the countr)'. In appropriate courses 
large use is also made of an excellent museum and 
of the special college library. 

The Cohege of Technology is devoted to the 
higher education of young men in engineering. It 
gives courses in mechanical, electrical, chemical, 
civil and architectural engineering and in the chem- 
istry and engineering of sugar-making. The 
courses of study have been carefully planned with 
the object of fitting- 3roung men to take a prominent 
part in the development of the great natural re- 
sources of the South. 

The equipment of apparatus, machines and mod- 
els for the different engineering courses is already 
extensive and is being steadily increased. Labo- 
ratory work is a prominent feature in physics and 
chemistry. In civil engineering the collection of 
instruments, etc., is good. In drawing and archi- 
tecture there are casts and examples of architec- 
tural details in plaster, terra cotta and metals. In 
electrical engineering the equipment is large and 
of an excellent character. 

Full work is done in all the engineering courses. 
Tlie course in sugar engineering' is practical and 
leads to the special instruction of the student in the 



Past— Present— Prospective 



611 







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rf 




'^•'^''a SHS ..^ 



RICHARDSON MEMORIAL-MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, lULANE UNIVERSITY 




H.SOPHIE NEWCOMB MEMORIAL FOR GIRLS, TULANE UNIVERSITY 



612 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 



details of design, proper erection and economical 
management of a sugar factory and its machinery. 
The student is trained also in the chemistry of clari- 
fication and chemical control of the various proc- 
esses of sugar-making. 

Students graduating from these engineering 
courses have found no difficulty in securing" re- 
munerative and responsible employment. 

The H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for 
Women was founded in 1886, by Mrs. Josephine 
Louise Newcomb, as a memorial to her daughter, 
and is devoted to the higher education of women. 

The college buildings occupy a large square, sev- 
eral acres in extent, situated on Washington, 
Chestnut, Camp and Sixth streets, in the residence 
portion of the city. The beauty of its situation 
and surroundings is unsurpassed. Its extensive 
grounds, shaded by numerous live oaks, palms and 
other trees and shrubbery, are most attractive, 
while the mildness of the climate permits open-air 
recreation throughout the entire winter. 

The group of buildings comprises: 1, New- 
comb Hall, which, in addition tO' various class 
rooms, contains the librarj' and an assembly hall 
capal)le of seating 700 persons; 2, Academy, with 
a gymnasium upon the first floor, and upon the 
second and third floors the biological, physical and 
chemical laboratories, lecture rooms and recitation 
rooms; 3, the College Chapel; 4, Art Building, 
containing numerous studios and class rooms, pic- 
ture galleries and an art library, where every facil- 
ity is offered for the study and practice of indus- 
trial and fine art; 5, the Pottery, with kilns and 
other appliances for a course in Ceramic art; 
('). Josephine Louise House for boarding students. 

These buildings are of substantial character, at- 
tractive in architecture, and aft'ord one of the most 
pleasing prospects in the city. 

The Colleg'e ofTers three regular courses of 
study: Classical, Modern Language, and Scien- 
tific, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts or 
Bachelor of Science. Graduates from either of 
these are admitted to university courses, at Tulane 
University, on the same conditions as aie the 
young men who graduate from the College of Arts 
and Sciences, or the College of Technology. 

In addition to the regular courses of study, New- 
comb College offers normal courses in art and 
ph3'sical education, and special or elective courses 
in ancient and modern languages, mathematics, 
science, history and art. 



The system of education is liberal and thorough, 
and the grade of work accomplished in its various 
departments is of the higdiest order. This college 
is an earnest attempt to secure for the South as 
efficient and as generous a system of education as 
can be found in any of the best institutions in the 
North. 

The Law Department is now in the fifty-second 
year of its existence. Its faculty has always been 
chosen from among the most distinguished mem- 
bers of the legal profession. Its graduates fill hon- 
orable positions at the bar and on the bench in this 
and other States. While the Civil Law is taught as 
the basis of the whole legal superstructure and ma- 
chinei-y of the State, and as the foundation of its 
civil code and jurisdiction, the course of instruc- 
tion is sufficiently comprehensive to prepare the 
students for admission to the bar, not only in this 
State, but also in any of the common law States of 
the Union. Students have access to^ the new State 
Law Library. 

Since its organization in 1834 the Medical De- 
partment has held the first place in the Southern 
States in the confidence of the medical profession. 
This eminence has been maintained tO' the present 
time by the ability and distinction of its faculty, its 
unsurpassed means of teaching and the large num- 
ber and eminence of its matriculates and graduates. 

The Medical Department now occupies the new 
building on Canal Street, erected and equipped 
through the munificence of Mrs. Ida A. Richard- 
son as a memorial to her late husband, Dr. T. G. 
Richardson, for many years the dean of the Medical 
Department. 

The new building, four stories in height, pro- 
\-ides ample accommodation for large classes and 
for all the needs now requisite to medical edu- 
cation, with large and better lecture and recitation 
rooms and well equipped laboratories. 

These admirable laboratories, chemical, pharma- 
ceutical, microscopical and for practical anatomy 
and operative surgery, now added to the unrivalled 
practical advantages for clinical, anatomical and 
pathological studies given by the Charity Hospital, 
enable the Medical Department to provide its stu- 
dents with unsurpassed advantages for their medi- 
cal education. 

These educational advantages have been still 
further increased by recent improvements, notably 
by the addition of the Milliken Memorial, a superb 



Past— Present— Prospective 



613 



modern and model building for the accommoda- 
tion of two hundred sick children. 

It is obvious that no purely theoretical instruc- 
tion can compensate for the lack of practical knowl- 
edge gained at the bedside and in presence of sick 
and suffering. This practical knowledge is ac- 
cjuired in the Charity Hospital. The use of the 
wards of this noble institution, with its 900 beds 
and 10,000 annual patients, and the use of the two 
clinical buildings with more than 20,000 annual 
out-door patients, have been given by Acts of the 
Legislature to the professors of the Medical De- 
partment of the Tulane University of Louisiana for 
the practical instruction of its students not only in 
medicine and surgery, but also in obstetrics and 
gynecology. Medical students are given access to 
the hospital for purpose of practical instruction. 

The superior advantages offered by the Medical 
Department serves to attract students from all 
parts of the country. The attendance this year is 
greater than ever before. 

Col. Wm. Preston Johnston was selected by the 
Board of Administrators in 1883 to^ organize the 
University under the terms of Mr. Tulane's dona- 
tion. He continued to guide its development with 
admirable tact and wisdom until his death, which 
occurred in July, 1899. 

On the 5th of April, 1900, Dr. Edwin Anderson 
Alderman was elected president of Tulane Univer- 
sity by the Board of Administrators of the Tulane 
Educational Fund. 

President Alderman is a young man, only thirty- 
eight years of age. He is a Southerner born and 
bred. He is a Christian gentleman. He is a man 



of splendid presence, and of refined, polished man- 
ners. His scholarship is brilliant and varied, not 
narrowed to any particular specialty, but evidenc- 
ing a broad and general culture. His entire life has 
been devoted to education, and his career as the 
president of the University of North Carolina has 
given him a large experience in university admin- 
istration and development. 

Tulane University is, in tone. Christian, but not 
sectarian. The discipline is mild, but firm. The 
regularly matriculated students of the colleges con- 
stitute the Academic Corps and elect a Board of 
Directors, to which, for the past thirteen years, has 
been entrusted the general discipline and good 
order of the Academic Corps. The system has 
worked satisfactorily. 

An Advisory Board, composed of representatives 
from the faculty, students and alumni, have the 
general direction of college athletics. 

Expenses are moderate and about two hundred 
scholarships are annually given in the Academic 
Departments. 

The admirable location of Tulane University in 
the great metropolis of the Southwest; the wealth 
of its endowment; the ability and zeal of its admin- 
istration and faculties; the extent and value of its 
ecj^uipment in laboratories and other appliances for 
the instruction of its students in the arts and 
sciences, and in preparation for technical and pro- 
fessional pursuits; its growing reputation for thor- 
ough intellectual and practical results, all com- 
bine to place the institution upon a strong and per- 
manent foundation and give reasonable assurance 
of a brilliant future of usefulness. 




ART DEPARTMENT, H.SOPHIE NEWCOMB MEMORIAL, TULANE UNIVERSITY 




HOME AND SUGAR REFINERY OF EX-GOVERNOR VCARMOTH, PLAQUEMINE PARISH 




1 Loise) Refinery, Jeanerette 

3 Residence Jno. N. Pharr, Berwick 



2 Orange Grove Refinery, Olivier 
4 Glenwild Refinery, Berwick 
VIEW OF SUGAR PLANTATIONS OF JOHN N. PHARR AND PHARR & BUSSEY 



Past— Present— Prospective 



615 




BAYOU TECHE 
"Just where the woodlands meet the flowery surf of the prairies."— £xang-c(iV 



616 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 





MAYOR LEWIS 
Franklin, La. 



MAYOR C. KLINE 
Donaldsonville, La. 



BAYOU TECHE 



Beautiful is the land, with its prairies and forests of fruit trees; 

Under the feet a garden of Bowers, and bluest of Heavens 
Bending above, and resting its dome on the walls of the forest. 

They who dwell there have named it the Eden of Louisiana. 

— Evangeline. 



That portion of Louisiana through which the 
beautiful Teche finds its way — the southern cen- 
tral portion of the State — is famous, not alone be- 
cause its attractions have been sung iu song by the 
poet, but because it has had its beauty and its 
countless attractions spread far and wide by those 
who have seen this "Eden of Louisiana.'' 

Not only is it beautiful, but it is fertile as well, 
and in its fertile area is located some of the finest 
sugar plantations, some of the greatest hardwood 
lumber mills, and some of the most prosperous Ht- 
tle cities of the State. In the parishes which 
border the Teche the sugar cane is the exclusive 
large crop, save in St. Landry, St. Martin and Ibe- 
ria cotton is grown to a more or less extent. The 
growth of this section of the State, both in wealth 



and population, is shown by the statistics which arc 
to be found on pages 352 and 518. 

The principal cities and towns are Breaux 
Bridge, New Iberia, Franklin, Patterson, Jean- 
nerette, Morgan City and St. Martinsville. They 
are all quite attractive in appearance and are pros- 
perous and growing places. The bayou region of 
the Teche and Lafourche also includes Bayou 
Plaquemine, Bayou Terrebonne, Bayou de Large, 
Bayou Petite and others along the banks of which 
are scenes of rare beauty to charm the eye. On the 
fertile high-lands of all these bayous are located fine 
sugar plantations. The views of this region given 
in this book speak their own praises and utter their 
own discriptions. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



617 




618 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 





"Garlands of Spanish moss and of mystic mistletoe flaunted, 
Such as the Druid's cut down with golden hatchets at Yule-tide." 

— Evangeline. 



SCENES ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE 




1 Vanfrey Sugar Refinery, Jeanerelte 

2 Residence of O. t,. Mounot 

3 Sugar Factory O. L. Mounot, Jeanerette 



4 Sugar Factory of Shelby H. Saunders 

5 Segura Sugar Manufacturing Co., New Iberia 

6 Adeline Refinery, Adeline, L,a. 

7 Main street. New Iberia 



An important New Iberia industry 
Court House. New Iberia 
Morris Foundry, New Iberia 



VIEWS ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE 




I Shadyside Refinery, of J. W. Bainett, Calumet, La. 2 Hardwood Lumber^Mill. 3. Calumet Refinery, Calumet, La. 4. Logouda Refinery, 

Patterson, La. 5. Residence of J. W. Barnett, Calumet, La. 6. Oyster Industry, Morgan City, La. 7. F. B. Williams, Sawmill, 

Patterson, La. 8. Court House. Franklin, La. g. Belleview Refinery, Franklin, La. 10. County Jail, Franklin, La. 

II. Lumber Plant, Franklin, La. 12. Residence on Belleview Plantation, Franklin, La. 

13. Franklin Sugar Refinery, Franklin, La. 



VIEWS ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE. 



622 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 




NEW IBERIA HIGH SCHOOL, NEW IBERIA, LA. 




CYPRESS TANK AND MANUFACTURING CO., PATTERSON, LA. 




A SUGAR PLANTER'S RESIDENCE-JOHN D. SHAFFER, TERRE BONNE, PARISH 



Past— Present— Prospective 



623 




THE VALLEY OF THE RED RIVER IN LOUISIANA 



024 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



RED RIVER VALLEY 



Of all the x-alleys which form a part of the great 
Mississippi River allu\-ial lands, that of Reel River 
is the largest. In the State of Louisiana alone the 
alluvial lands of this river are estimated to be over 
1,700 square miles, occupying, as il does, large por- 
tions of the Parishes of Caddo, Bossier, Red River, 
Natchitoches, Rapides, Avoyelles, St. Landr}' and a 
small part of two or three others. This valley has 
long been noted for its fertility and the generally- 
prosperous condition of its people. 

In the general description of the alluvial lands 
of Louisiana special mention is made of the growth 
in population of some of these parishes, and by 
reference to the table of assessed valuation in the 
same connection it will be seen that their financial 
improvement has, fully kept pace with the increase 
of population. 

Shreveport, its chief citv, is one of great com- 
mercial and industrial activity at present, and bids 
fair to be one of the largest inland cities of the 
Southwest. Shreveport has a greater number of 
railroads for its population than an\- city in the 
world. Besides this it has an all-the-year-round 
navigation of Red Ri\'er, both north and south. 
Thus it is admirably situated for a large wholesale 
or distributing point as well as for a center of in- 
dustrial activity, and it is already both of these. 
While its growth during the last twenty years has 
been satisfactory (having almost doubled in popu- 
lation), its commercial, manufactiu4ng and general 
shipping conditions have increased far beyond that 
ratio, and the population must, by the very nature 
of things, be more largely increased in the next 
two decades to keep pace with its facilities. 

The railroads which enter Shreveport are the 
Yicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific ; Texas & Pacific, 
with Southern and Western divisions; Houston, 
East & West Texas; St. Louis South Western: 
Kansas City Southern; Texarkana, Shreveport & 
Natchez; Shreveport & Red River Valley, and the 
Missouri, Kansas & Texas railroads. 

The cotton receipts by rail for the season of 
1898-99 were over 200,000 bales, thus making 
Shreveport the largest cotton market in the world 
in proportion to its population. In all fairness to 



Shreveport it must be said that the population 
gi\'en by the census does not represent, by many 
thousands, the full figures, as outlying districts and 
that portion of the city called East Shreveport 
which lies on the opposite side of the river in Bos- 
sier are not included in this enumeration. At East 
Shreveport is situated many of her most pros- 
perous industrial enterprises, and must be consid- 
ered as an important part of the city. 

With its remarkable healthfulness, with its unex- 
celled facilities for distribution, and situated as it is 
in the center of a prosperous and growing section 
of the Southwest, Shreveport offers exceptional 
opportunities for successful manufactories of all 
kinds, and in addition to those industrial plants 
which she now has, and those in the course of erec- 
tion, many more are projected or contemplated. 

Mr. H. H. Hargrove, the well-known evangel 
of factories, especially cotton factories, in a recent 
article on Shreveport, writes as follows: 

"We need a $10,000 to $15,000 furniture com- 
pany; $10,000 woodenware, buckets, trays manu- 
facturing plant; a $5,000 broom factory; a $10,000 
rope and twine plant; a $20,000 hosiery mill; a 
$25,000 to $50,000 flour mill ; a tannery, a shoe fac- 
tory, a harness and saddle factory, a large tin-work- 
ing plant, a chair and desk factory and, in fact, 
there are fifty small industries which by small stock- 
company subscriptions could be started in our 
midst without seriously affecting the cash of the 
people. We need a manual training school and a 
technical department of our public schools, to cost 
$25,000." 

Without doubt all these enterprises could be 
successfully inaugurated here, and probably the 
next census will find not only these, but many sim- 
ilar industrial organizations in successful operation. 

And Mr. Hargrove's allusion to the cash neces- 
sary to inaugurate these enterprises is very appro- 
priate, in view of the fact that, financially, Shreve- 
port is rather a remarkable city. With all these 
advantages mentioned and with the large accumu- 
lations of capital which are to be found here there is 
no reason to doubt the future of Shreveport. 
Shreveport is bound to be perhaps the largest in- 
land city of the Southwest. 




1 Victoria Lumber Company's Mills 

2 Typical Residence 

3 Catholic Churcb 



4 High School 

5 Coming Home from a Fish Fry 

6 Merchants and Farmers Bank 

SHREVEPORT, LA. 



7 St. Mary's Convent 

8 Shreveport Ice and Refrigerating Co" 

9 A String of Beauties. 




FINE COURT HOUSE OF CADDO PARISH AND VIEW OF CITY 




v., S. & P. BRIDGE ACROSS RED RIVER 




VIEW OF SHREVEPORT FROM THE EAST SIDE OF RED RIVER 



SHREVEPORT, LA. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



627 



Alexandria, the second city of the Red River 
Valley, is one of the growing places of Louisiana. 
Twenty years ago it was a small town. It has 
quadrupled its population since then and become 
an industrial and commercial point of importance. 
Its railroads are the Texas & Pacific, Southern 
Pacific, St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, 
Kansas City, Watkins & Gulf. The Shreveport & 
Red River Railroad wih soon be completed to this 
point. 

Thus equipped with railroads, extending in all 
directions, and having in addition the Red River, 
it is an ideal location for a city. And additional 
roads are projected and contemplated which will 
eventually reach Alexandria. Predictions have 
been freely made that here will be one of the larg- 
est cities of Louisiana. 

Natchitoches, quaint old Natchitoches, has al- 
ways been one of the most interesting towns of the 
State. It has been noted for its fine school, fine 
churches and the intelligence and culture of its 
people. When it was first located (and it is one 
of the oldest places in Louisiana), Natchitoches was 
on Red River, but in the early years of the "late 
departed" century the river changed its main 
course, leaving the town on the smaller branch of a 
divided river. It is now called Cane River, and is 
navigable only in times of high water in the main 
stream. 

But Natchitoches has a railroad with termini at 
Grand E'Core, on Red River, and at Cypress on the 



Texas & Pacific Railroad. The people of Natchi- 
toches are building a fine iron bridge across Red 
River at Grand E'Core, and this railroad will be 
built northward and will become valuable in ex- 
tending the trade of Natchitoches, as it will traverse 
a country not only fertile, but heavily timbered. 

Natchitoches is a progressive place and is grow- 
ing both in wealth and population. Here is sit- 
uated the Louisiana State Normal School, one of 
the most useful institutions of the State. 

Founded in 1S84, by Act of Legislature, its 
initial session opened in November, 1885. It has 
larg'c and commodious accommodations, beautiful 
parkings and extensive grounds. It is an ideal place 
for a school. During the fifteen years of its ex- 
istence it has been an important factor in the im- 
provement of the morale of the schools of Louis- 
iana. Under the direction, successively, of Prof. 
Edward E. Sheib, Col. Thos. D. Boyd, now presi- 
dent of the Louisiana State University, and Prof. 
B. C. Caldwell, it has prospered, developed and en- 
larged, and liecome indispensable to the educa- 
tional unfolding of Louisiana. 

The other towns of the Red River Valley are 
Pineville, Coushatta, Colfax, St. Maurice, Mont- 
gomery, Campti and others which are being located 
on the new Shreveport & Red River Valley road. 

The Red River Valley is a fair and fertile part of 
Louisiana and is rapidly increasing in wealth and 
population. 




A SAMPLE"BUSINESS BUILDING OF SHREVEPORT, LA. 



628 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 




h/atchez. /fed River S Texas 



THE VALLEY OF THE OUACHITA RIVER-LOUISIANA AND PART OF ARKANSAS 



Past— Present— Prospective 



629 



OUACHITA VALLEY AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE 

OUACHITA RIVER 



The United States Government has at different 
times made appropriations, in all amounting to 
nearly $300,000, for the purpose of preparing sur- 
veys, estimates, etc., of the Ouachita and Black 
Rivers to ascertain the practicability and feasibility 
of locks and dams to secure slack water navigation 
in times of low water. 

Maj. J. H. Willard, United States Engineer 
Corps, has made several favorable reports on these 
projects. Since Maj. Willard's transfer to Chicago, 
this work has developed upon Maj. Thos. L. Casey. 
Gen. Wilson, Chief of Engineers, requested Maj. 
Casey to include in his report some statistics of 
commerce tO' be affected by the river improvement. 
A convention held at Monroe, La.. November 9th, 
1899, permanently organized the Ouachita and 
Black River Improvement Association, with Col. 
A. S. Morgan, of Camden, as president, represent- 
ing Arkansas interests, and Hon. Uriah Millsaps, 
-of Monroe, representing Louisiana interests, as 
vice president. This association, to assist Maj. 
Casey in securing these statistics, employed Mr. G. 
C. Strong, an expert statistician, to compile a com- 
prehensive report on the resources of the Ouachita 
Valley. 

This labor was performed in a very creditable 
manner, and the statement waj' not only correct 
and thorough in all its details, but was gratifying 
to the people of the Ouachita Valley and sustaining 
to the pi'oject by showing a probable benefit to 
very large interests. 

These figures are not unreasonable, nor are they 
speculative. They simply represent exact facts 
and estimates of future benefits caused by these im- 
provements are left tO' speculation. 

The Ouachita Valley contains either wholly or 
in part, twenty-one counties and parishes in Arkan- 
sas and Louisiana, and the reports above men- 
tioned develop the following facts regarding the 
area and commercial and manufacturing energy, 
capital invested, timber, etc. : 

Total number of square miles (area), 15,738; 
total number of acres, 10,072,318; total popula- 



tion, 355,940; total assesses valuation, $36,427,617; 
total number of live stock, 494,776; actual value 
of same, $6,189,874; total acres in cultivation, 
1,575,255; number of bales of cotton raised, 
384,771. A compilation on the total tonnage on 
the Ouachita tributary streams for the season of 
1898-99 discloses the following facts: Cotton 
(bales), 91,250; cotton seed (sacks), 154,167; eggs, 
(cases), 1,564; live stock (head), 2,283; lumber 
(feet), 271,500; staves (pieces), 976,362; pro- 
visions, 61,912; grain (sacks), 45,237; miscella- 
neous freight (packages), 224,577; cotton seed 
meal (sacks), 40,635; total weight in tons, 73,968; 
total estimated value, $5,608,360. 

The miles of navigable streams included in this 
report is given as follows: Ouachita River (from 
mouth of Black River to Camden, Ark.), 400 miles; 
Little River, 150 miles; Tensas and Upper Tensas, 
150 miles; Bayou Macon, 150 miles; Bayou Louis, 
30 miles; Boeuf River, 200 miles; Bayou D'Ar- 
bonne, 80 miles; Bayou Bartholomew, 200 miles; 
Sahne, 125 miles; Ouachita River (Camden to 
Arkadelphia), 80 miles; total miles, 1,565. 

To show the dignity of the area represented by 
the Ouachita Valley the compiler compares it with 
the total area of the three States — Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island and Connecticut, which is 14,555 
miles. These three States have a total population 
of 4,142,257 by the late census. The area of the 
counties and parishes mentioned as tributary to the 
Ouachita River is about nine per cent greater than 
the area of the above named States. 

Many practical business men and manufacturers 
of timber were interviewed on this subject and gave 
some very valuable information. For instance, 
Mr. F. R. Pierce, vice president and general man- 
ager of the Louis Werner Sawmill Company, which 
have mills at Griffin, Kirkland, Lester, Sayr°, Mad- 
ison and Lansing, Arkansas, and Tioga, Louisiana, 
presents a statement in which he estimates that 
good navigation on the Ouachita River would 
open up a market for billions of feet of lumber 



630 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



which are on the Ouachita and tributary streams, 
inaccessible now because of its distance from rail 
transportation, and that with good transportation 
facilities on these rivers the value of this inaccessi- 
ble timber would advance to an equality with the 
most favorably located timber along the different 
railway systems. There are large export firms 
dealing in lumber, staves and box material which 
are now shipping their productions through the 
Ouachita and Black Rivers, notwithstanding the 
shortness of the season. 



During the time of low water many millions of 
feet of timber, staves and other manufactured forms 
of lumber lie on the banks of these rivers awaiting 
a rise which is often delayed until very late in the 
season. This naturally hampers operations. With 
navigation in these rivers all the year around this 
delay would be obviated. The loss of time, money 
and the natural danger and hazard of fire and other 
complications would be avoided. The develop- 
ment which would follow this improvement would 
be very rapid, and the growth of the country in 
population and wealth would keep pace with it. 




CAMDEN COMPRESS, 1 H i; THIRD LAHGESl SHED IN THE UNITED STATES 



CAMDEN, ARK. 



Camden, Arkansas, on the upper Ouachita, is a 
well built, thriving city of nearly 3,000 inhabitants. 
It is the center of a large lumbering industry and, 
besides, is situated in the midst of a very fine agri- 
cultural country. It has always been a great cot- 
ton market, and is steadily enlarging in this direc- 
tion. There are two railroads at Camden; the St. 
Louis, South Western, main line, and the Arkansas 
Southern R. R., north and south. These, together 
with the Ouachita River, afford fine shipping facil- 
ities to the growing young city. 

The Ouachita River would be a source of much 
more economic value to Camden were it made 
navigable, as is proposed by a system of dams 



securing slack water navigation when the river is 
usually low. 

At Camden is located what is said to be the third 
largest cotton shed in the world, which is a part 
of the equipment of the compress. An engraving 
of this is shown. Engravings are in the nature of 
ocular demonstration, and those which represent 
Camden give some idea of its attractive features. 

In industrial enterprises, commercial firms, 
banks, schools, churches, etc., it is fully abreast 
with the most enterprising towns of the Southwest. 
In the beauty of its location, in its healthfulness, in 
its good morals, and the general tone of its society, 
it is really an exceptional place. 




VIEWS OF CAMDEN, ARK. 




VIEWS OF CAMDEN, 4RK. 



Past— Present— Prospective 



633 



MONROE, LOUISIANA 





A. A. FORSYTHE, 
Mayor of Monroe 



R. A. SHOTWELL, 
President Board of Trade, Monroe La. 



Monroe is favorable situated on the banks of the 
Ouachita River, about thirty miles by land, south 
of the Arkansas State line. It is on the main trans- 
continental railroad line which connects the East 
with the West on the 32nd parallel of latituae. 
This road, the Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific 
Railway, a part of the Queen and Crescent Railway, 
has recently inaugurated a double daily passenger 
service, running through trains in connection with 
the Missouri, Kansas and Texas R. R. at Shreve- 
port and the Southern Railway (Alabama Great 
Southern Division), at Meridian, Mississippi, thus 
giving unusual facilities for this section in the way 
of travel to the East and West. A branch of the 
St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway, 
which has been built within the last few years, gives 
it both Northern and Southern connection, and 
through trains are run to New Orleans twice a day. 
The same facilities are afiforded from Monroe to 
Little Rock, and St. Louis on the north. Thus 
Monroe is put in cpiick touch with all of the com- 
mercial sections. 

In addition to these means of communication the 
Ouachita River affords a line of steamboats both 



North and South. Within the last few years Mon- 
roe has grown very rapidly and has made many im- 
provements and additions to its business facilities. 
It has added very greatly to its appearance by an 
improvement in the physical condition of its streets 
and by the building of new residences to accommo- 
date the increased population. 

In a statement issued in connection with the 
Ouachita Valley improvement statistics, it is shown 
that in the last three years improvements have been 
made as follows: 

New iron (free) bridge across the Ouachita 
River, costing $Y0,000; two miles vitrified brick 
paving, costing v$35,000; new brick schoolhouse 
(just completing), cost $47,000; several miles of 
gravel paving; a new brick opera house, cost 
$8,500; wholesale grocery house (Sugar Bros.), 
$4,400; new Fudikar (brick) hotel, sixty rooms, 
$7,500; Hudson (brick) office block, $3,750; four 
brick stores, $7,000; new cotton factory (brick), 
now under construction, including machinery, 
$70,000; new Presbyterian Church (brick), 
$15,000; new Methodist Episcopal Church (brick), 
$18,000; new Catholic Church, $14,500. 



634 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi RiVer: 



Among the new manufactories are the Monroe 
Brick Works, the West Monroe Sash and Door 
Factory, West Monroe Lumber Company, new 
foundry and machine shops. 

In addition to this is the fine cotton mill which is 
being erected by Monroe capital, an engraving of 
which is shown, made from the original drawing. 
This building is being built of brick in a very sub- 
stantial manner and will be completed and in 
operation in a few months. 

The general industrial condition of Monroe is 
first-class. They have all the manufacturing facili- 
ties in the way of compresses and oil mills that are 
necessary to handle and prepare for market the 
large receipts of cotton and cotton seed which are 
brought to Monroe by rail, wagon and river. 

The timber development in the Monroe district 
is very great and rapidly increasing. With navi- 



gation all the year around on the Ouachita Rivef 
vast quantities of the finest timber, which are now 
inaccessible, would find its way to Monroe mills. 
The facilities for the handling of timber are not 
confined to the cruder manufactures, but they are 
turning out building material, floors, sashes, doors 
and other materials. Monroe's location and rail- 
way facilities have enabled it to build up a large 
commercial business which is rapidly increasing. 

Monroe has the finest public school building in 
the State, and several handsome and modern 
church buildings. 

In this description and in the engravings which 
accompany it. West Monroe is regarded and 
treated as part of Monroe. It is separate and dis- 
tinct in municipal government and in other ways, 
but financially, commercially and industrially the 
two places are really one. 




ST. LOUIS & IRON MOUNTAIN R. R, BRIDGE ACROSS OUACHITA RIVER AT COLUMBIA, LA. 









*>4«"-'?p 



i^iS'.ilPliiliCtli 



> r 





MONROE COTTON MILLS— CONTRACTORS, D. A. TOMPKINS CO. 




1 Wagon Bridge, looking from West Monroe 

2 Parish School 



3 First Methodist Church 

4 Monroe High School 

5 Presbyterian Church 

MONROE, LA. 



6 U. S. Government Building 

7 Bird's-Eye View of Monroe from School Tower 




1 A Heavy Haul 

2 New Hotel 

3 Monroe Cotton Yard 



4 West Monroe Sash and Blind Factory 

5 \Vest Monroe Oil Mills 

6 West Monroe Water Works 



Planters Compress and Warehouse Company 
Compress, from the River 
West Monroe Lumber Company 
Railroad Bridge across Ouachita River 



Past— Present— Prospective 



637 



CTi 



7i 




For population, see page 352 ; 
other statistics, page 518. 



638 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



c 




A 



a.use^ 



N 



A 



(nl 



'Bon if a. 



\ 



;y° 



y<^'- 



Brodna.x 



H 



>d.llloii 



,^ 



V\j 



T 



o ^^• 



.■^ 



9^ 



o 



follinsfon 



O 



o 



% 



^\ 






^1 



^ 



DOSSy 



'V? 



'Oakn'dge 



l^ 



Q 



^ 



T 



N^ 



^ 



o 



9^ 



\ 



For population, see page 352; other statistics, see page 51S. 



PAST— Present— Prospective 



639 



(Map Reduced Scale) 

For population, see page 352 
other statistics, page 518. 




C^A^TA HO U L A 



640 



Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 



DESCRIPTION OF McCAUGHAN BROS.' 
PATENT DEVICE FOR THE PRO- 
TECTION OF LOW RIPARIAN 
LANDS FROM OVERFLOW 

To ALL WHOM IT MAY CONCERN: Be it known that we, 
William McCaughan and Harper McCaughan, of Gulfport, in 
the County of Harrison, and State of Mississippi, have invented 
a new and improved means for protecting riparian lands from 
overflow, of which the following is a specification: 

Our Invention relates to improved means of protecting 
riparian lands from the overflow of rivers whose banks are pro- 
tected by levees, as the Mississippi for instance, and it consists 
in the peculiar construction and arrangement of the several fea- 
tures of the invention, which we will now proceed to describe 
with reference to the drawing in which figure ( i ) is a plan view 
and figure (2) a sectional view taken through the XX; in the 
drawing A represents the river, whose banks upon each side are 
protected by raised embankments or levees, EB; in one of the 
banks we cut an outlet, C, and also provide an outlet channel 
C back of the opening; said channel C having levees DD upon 
each side of same; this outlet 
channel extends to a lower 
lying basin or reservoir, into 
which the surplus waters 
may be received and retained 
or be drained away to some 
other outlet. By this con- 
struction a portion of the 
water from the main stream 
A is led off through the out- 
let channel, but in order to 
prevent the water from the 
main stream from entering 
the outlet channel at all 
times we construct a dam E 
across said channel, near its 
mouth, which dam is of a 
predetermined height, being 
lower than that of the levees 
and just high enough to per- 
mit overflow here when the 
danger point in the altitude 
of the main stream is reached 
from a flood or other cause 
during the normal flow of 
the river. This dam forms 
a part of the levee on this 
bank of the river. This dam 
is inclined on each side of its 
middle to permit a steady 
rise upon the river side and 
an easy and gradual flow up- 
on the other side; to prevent 
violent washing and the de- 
struction of the dams, the 
levees and dam are constructed in any suitable manner and of 
any material, and in order to protect the entrance of the outlet 
channel we construct fenders F at each corner of the junction 
of the main stream and overflow channel, which fenders extend 
some distance up and down stream, and also some distance past 
the dam in the overflow channel. These fenders prevent the 
washing of the corners; to prevent washing the dam it is pro- 
vided with a nonerosive face G. As shown, the fenders are 
made of piles with a heavy plank or timber facing, and the non- 
erosive face of the dam is also constructed of sheet piles driven 
perpendicular across the outlet channel. Itis obvious, however, 
that both the fenders and the facing of the dam may be built of 
masonry, or any suitable material, without departing from our 
invention. 

From the foregoing description it will be seen that in times 
of flood or freshet the river will rise until it reaches the top of 




the dam E, and after this instead of endangering the banks of 
the river by cutting crevasses in the levees it will flow over the 
dam, and the superfluous water will thus be disposed of, so that 
the river cannot rise above a certain level, and its banks will at 
all times be preserved intact. The overflow passage and dams 
may be located at any point along the banks of the river, and 
as many of them may be provided as is necessary to dispose of 
the extra volume of water. 

Having thus described our Invention, what we claim as 
new, and desire to secure by letters patent is: 

1st. The means for preventing the overflow of low-lying 
riparian lands protected by levees, which consists of a nonero- 
sive dam forming a part of one of the levees, and arranged with 
its top at a predetermined distance, below the tops of the said 
levees, an outlet channel lying back of the said dam, and means 
for confining the water in said channel substantially as and for 
the purpose described. 

2d. The means for preventing the overflow of low-lying 
riparian lands protected by levees, which consists of a lateral 
channel way communi<:ating with the main stream and provided 
with levees, a nonerosive dam placed across the lateral channel 
near its mouth, and forming a part of the main levees of the 
stream at low water, but made of less height than said main 
levees and fenders or guards F, arranged at the junction of the 

lateral channel with the main 
stream and extending a short 
distance up and down stream, 
and also along the lateral 
channel past the dam sub- 
stantially as and for the pur- 
pose described. 

By the use of this sys- 
tem of outlets a guarantee of 
protection against floods 
from the Mississippi river 
can be secured to the lands 
subject to inundation; it will 
also add immense value to 
these lands, and when in use 
the country will be relieved 
of the levee tax, as by this 
system the levee will not be 
damaged by high water, so 
as to require being repaired ; 
and when such protection is 
secured it will induce capi- 
talists to invest large sums 
of money for the improve- 
ment of lands along the Mis- 
sissippi and its tributaries. 
This system can be adopted 
bj' the different States dam- 
aged by overflows, or the 
people interested in this im- 
provement can petition their 
respective Representatives in 
Congress to aid in getting 
this system adopted by the 
Government. The owners of 
this patent-right will make easy terms in the sale to the Gov- 
ernment or States of their Invention. 

By the use of this system, when the current of the river is 
increased by high water, a scouring is produced that deepens 
the channel; whereas, with the levee system the high water 
raises the current, causing still water below, in which lodges 
a deposit, raising the bottom of the river, thereby necessitating 
the building of high levees. 

WILLIAM MCCAUGHAN, 
HARPER McCAUGHAN. 

NOTE — By placing one of these c-utlets so as to surround svvainp or waste 
lands with the levees to said outlets, and with a second overflow dam in rear of 
said lands and levees, to continue and conduct the surplus water to a natural 
outlet, a still-water pond or lake is formed to receive and deposit the silt dur- 
ing high water, thereby producing a filling to reclaim said lands and raise the 
banks of the river in low places to form the most fertile fields in the world, 



